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“ Martha ” 


W illiam Mortensen 




WILLIAM MORTENSEN 


FLASH 

IIV MODERN 
PHOTOGRAPHY 


Supplementary Notes by 

DON M.PAUL 


CAMERA CRAFT PDHLISHING CDMPANY 

425 Bush Street San Francisco, Calif. 


Copyright 1941 


©ciA 


' T/?&o*r 

■ .M&r 


Camera Craft Publishing Company 
San Francisco 


Other Books hy 

WILLIAM MORTENSEN 

Projection Control 
Pictorial Lighting 
Monsters and Madonnas 
The Command To Look 
The Model 
Print Finishing 
Outdoor Portraiture 


2 j W-A7. 


16Q57S 


Printed in the United States of America 
by The Mercury Press, San Francisco 

RECEIVED 

JAN 10 1942 

copyright office 



CONTENTS 


Foreword . 


10 


Part One 


Chapter One —Construction of the Flash Bulb .12 

The real protagonist. Early forms of flash. Flash powders: uncertain and 
hazardous. The first flash bulbs. Their testing and exploitation by press pho¬ 
tographers. Construction of typical bulb. Oxygen content. Firing mechanism. 
Combustible filling of foil or wire. Safety coating. Type of base. Causes of 
functional failure. 


Chapter Two —The Behavior of Flash Bulbs .. 18 


The cycle of the flash. Terms defined: millisecond, lumen, lumen-second. 
Graphic representation of flash behavior. Three types of peaks. Manufactur¬ 
ers’ data on bulb behavior. 


Chapter Three —The Problem of Synchronization 


28 


The “open flash” method. Synchronization defined. The behavior of shutters. 
The between-the-lens shutter. The focal plane shutter. Types of synchronizers: 
manual, mechanical and electrical. Fitting the shutter to the curve. The case 
of the focal plane. 


Chapter Four —The Problem of Exposure with Flash ... 36 


Exposure: the crux of the photographic process. The most common faults in 
flash photography are basically faults of exposure. The eight factors in ex¬ 
posure control. (1) Film speed. (2) Size of flash bulb. (3) Distance from bulb 
to subject. (4) Type of reflector. (5) Shutter speed. (6) Diaphragm opening. 
(7) Surrounding reflective surfaces. (8) Color and texture of subject matter. 
Calculating exposure: methods old and new. New problems introduced by 
flash. Official exposure recommendations. 





Part Two 


Chapter One —Sentimental Record .50 

That hardy perennial, the snapshot. Reasons for the persistence of the snap¬ 
shot. Its standardized faults. Some methods for avoiding them. The boon of 
flash in intimate record pictures. Basic equipment. Things to remember. 

Uses of diffusion and reflection. Various diffusing mediums. Hotv to take 
advantage of available reflecting surfaces. Tivo types of lighting. The “flash 
effect ” and how to avoid it. The service of flash to the amateur: it makes it 
possible for him to photograph things more nearly as his eye sees them. 


Chapter Two —Portraiture with Flash .68 


Portraiture from the beginning has been one of the most important phases of 
photography. The importance of lighting. Flash in portrait lighting. Func¬ 
tions of light in portraiture. Why flash for portraiture? Standard faults of 
studio portraiture. Elimination of these faults by flash. Multiple flash. Choice 
of wire for extensions. Causes of faulty synchronization with multiple flash. 
The background light. The use of diffusion. Set-ups for a single source. Basic 
Light. Semi-Silhouette Light. Set-ups for double source. Exposure with mul¬ 
tiple flash: two methods of calculating it. Advantages of standardized set-ups. 
Determination of exposure by “pilot light ” How to use pilot numbers. 
Advantages of the pilot system. 


Chapter Three— Sun-plus-Flash 


101 


Power of flash bulbs makes possible their combination with sunlight. The 
dilemma of outdoor photography. The #3 negative and the 7-D negative. 
Equipment. Light and shadow and the S:L ratio. The basic ratio, 1:4. The 
ratio at work. Choice of set-up for synchro-sun. Position of fill-in unit. 
Balancing the fill-in. Determination of balance: by guess and by God. Deter¬ 
mination of balance: a more scientific method. “I,” the “common increment 
Calculating “I” by use of meter. Reading "I” from scale. Application of the 
increment. About meters. Summary of procedure for sun-plus-flash. Flash 
on the loose: errors of sun-plus-flash. The sun as second fiddle. Flash in the 
shade. Summary of procedure for dominant flash. 


Chapter Four —Landscape and Architecture .136 


Flash is not always used for the sake of mere speed. In landscape, flash may 
help us to photographically achieve what the eye sees. Landscape as “ por¬ 
traiture .” Application of the 1:4 ratio in landscape. Balancing the foreground. 
Flash and foliage. Corridors. Against the light. 


8 




Part Three 


Introduction to Professional Flash .146 

Documentary Photography .148 

Importance of flash in documentary photography. The work of the Farm 
Security Administration. Four main uses of flash. 

Press Photography .155 

Flash responsible for increased use of pictures. Types of news pictures. 
Working conditions and methods. Press credited with the development of 
flash and flash synchronization. Amateur opportunities. Foreign press pho¬ 
tography. 

Blackout Flash Photography .169 

Pictures without light. Effects obtained. Uses. Technical data. 

Police Photography .174 

Uses and importance of flash in police work. Examples. Special police ex¬ 
posure table. Photographs as evidence. 

The Movie Still Photographer .183 

Increasing use of flash. Advantages. Types of movie stills. Methods. Advice. 

Radio Publicity Photography .193 

Advantages of flash in radio studio. Special problems. 

Aviation Flash Photography .197 

The work of Lawrence Kronquist. Methods. Advice. 

Clinical Flash Photography .202 

Cameron Color Flash Clinical Camera. Uses of flash. 

And In Conclusion—.204 

Appendix A —Method of Determining Pilot Numbers . . . 206 


9 












Foreword 


Photographers the last few years have been aware of a stranger 
in their midst. He was a sensational fellow, with manners not always 
of the best, and a propensity for low company; but still he seemed 
to be a person of remarkable talents. Photographers have been of two 
minds as to whether to invite him to come in and set and meet the 
folks, or else to ignore him as an impudent upstart. 

Taking leave of allegory: many of us have been in a quandary 
as to what to do about flash. Many people in recent years have 
hopefully purchased flash equipment. But it has failed to deliver 
the results that they hoped for and, after a few unhappy weeks, they 
have discarded it. Yet they still feel that here is a photographic 
innovation of much value—if they could just learn to use it. They 
can get results of a sort, of course, but results vastly inferior, pic- 
torially and photographically, to what they suspect that the proce¬ 
dure is capable of. They are in the ironic position of having a Stradi- 
varius in their hands, but being able to elicit nothing but squeaks 
and squawks from it. 

Flash is still new and growing, but old enough now so that we 
can get, if we try, some sort of perspective on it. This book is not a 
sales talk, or a catalogue of equipment, but an effort candidly to 
evaluate flash and to find a rational basis for its use. 

Looking back over the brief development of flash photography, 
we find that it begins to divide itself into two fields: 

1. Utilitarian 

2. Decorative (or pictorial) 


10 


The utilitarian phase was the first to develop and still represents 
the most consistently fruitful application of the flash technique. In 
the pictorial field there has heen—so far—less valuable accomplish¬ 
ment, but it holds much promise. 

Unfortunately perhaps, there is little exchange between the two 
fields. Neither has had much understanding of, or even sympathy 
with, the ideals and purposes of the other. Realizing my own lack 
of knowledge in the utilitarian branch, I have enlisted the aid of 
Don M. Paul in presenting their case. So far as possible, it is our 
intent to let the experts, by means of diagrams and data sheets, speak 
for themselves. 

It is my pleasant duty to express my thanks to many individuals 
and corporations for their generous help in the preparation of this 
book. 

First of all, to all persons, too numerous to mention, whose pic¬ 
tures are used. For their names, look for the “by lines.” 

To Folmer-Graflex, Kalart and the Wabash Photolamp Corpora¬ 
tion for permission to use contest pictures. 

To Don Mohler of General Electric for valuable technical criti¬ 
cism. 

To the publicity departments of Paramount, Universal, Warner 
Bros., Twentieth Century-Fox, and Columbia for permission to use 
numerous “stills.” 

To the Cameron Company for information on the clinical uses 
of flash. 

To the Los Angeles Police Department for their cooperation. 

To Roy Stryker and the Farm Security Administration photog¬ 
raphers for outstanding examples of the applications of flash in the 
documentary field. 

To Hansel Mieth and Otto Hagel of Life and Time for splendid 
examples of contemporary newsmagazine illustration. 

And to all others, undoubtedly numerous, whom I have forgotten 
to mention. 

William Mortensen 
Laguna Beach, California 


11 


Part One 


Chapter One 

Construction of the Flash Bulb 

The real protagonist of this book is the little gadget shown in 
Figure 1, the flash bulb. 

The modern flash bulb with its precision construction and reli¬ 
able behavior is long removed from the old time magnesium flash 
light. Yet it employs much the same principles. 

The application of the combustion of metallic magnesium, in 
the form of ribbon, to photographic lighting is almost as old as 
photography itself. The first use was in 1850, when photography 
was very immature indeed. A refinement was introduced by pow¬ 
dered magnesium, which was ignited by blowing it through a flame. 
The next improvement appeared in the form of flash powders. In 
these the rate of combustion was speeded up by mixing powdered 
magnesium with potassium perchlorate, or other oxidizing agents, 
which released oxygen during the process. There was even an effort 
in these flash powders to make them orthochromatic by including 
strontium and barium salts which reduced the excess of violet of 
the bare magnesium flame. 

All these materials, as any who have lived through them can 
attest, were conspicuously dangerous and uncertain. Flash light 
powders were in fact first cousins to high explosives, and not infre- 


12 


A. OXYGEN 



FIRING 

MECHANISM 

FILLING 

ASBESTOS 

SHIELD 

BASE 


Figure 1. Meet the flash bulb. 


quently blew up while being mixed, in the process of use, or even 
spontaneously in the container. Burns and singed eyebrows were 
a commonplace of flash light photography. A contemporary manual 
on the use of the flashlight forebodingly remarks, “It is always 
advisable to include a bottle of liniment and some bandages in the 
flashlight outfit.” 

Despite the fact that it was messy, dangerous, and unreliable, as 
well as highly explosive, flashlight powder did render good results 
when used “open-and-shut.” Good, that is, within modest limits. 
The quantity of powder that was used was an arbitrary matter, based 
on unhappy experience. Generally a cloud of billowy, smelly smoke 
engulfed the room for hours after a flashlight picture was taken. 
Many odd devices were patented for firing the flash powder. Some 
of them were fairly efficient, as such gadgets go, but all were un- 
wieldly. The commonest type was a pan, with a trigger and flint 
which ignited the powder. Ofttimes, in his creative ecstacy, the 
photographer would absent-mindedly pour powder into a hot pan, 


13 












with a resultant detonation that created pandemonium, scorched 
whiskers, singed eyebrows, and hurled particles of glass like shrapnel 
through the crowds. 

It seemed up to a dozen years ago that the flash technique would 
persist only as an anachronistic survivor of the mesozoic age of 
photography. And then, in Holland about 1928, this ancient pro¬ 
cedure took a fresh lease on life. The Phillips Glolamp Works, 
manufacturers of incandescent lighting, noted in the course of 
experimentation that combustible material in an oxygen-filled glass 
bulb would give a flash of light when current passed through a thin 
filament in the bulb. Gradual development increased the light inten¬ 
sity, and some bright lad tied it in with the camera. At that time, 
however, as for almost seven years to follow, there was no uniformity 
in the timing of the flash. This made it still necessary to shoot pictures 
by the open-and-shut method, after the old tradition of flash powder. 

Press photographers in America saw possibilities in this new idea 
and began to import these primitive flashbulbs for experimentation. 
In 1930, at the urging of newsmen who had tried the foreign bulbs, 
General Electric and Westinghouse began the manufacture of the 
first American-made flash bulbs. These were bulky, foil filled, and 
quite expensive. The news photographers used them by the open- 
and-shut method only, holding the bulb in a separate battery case. 
Inventive minds, however, soon began to figure out various means, 
mechanical or electrical, for synchronizing the firing time of the 
bulb with the opening of the shutter. Most of the synchronizers now 
on the market began their evolution as cumbersome, homemade 
contraptions on the front of press cameras. Increasing dependability 
and uniformity of bulb performance gave increasing importance to 
this phase of flash photography. 

In 1936, the Wabash Photolamp Corporation placed the first 
wire-filled bulb on the market. This type of bulb had a somewhat 
longer burning peak, an improvement of considerable advantage to 
the amateur. 

Since that time, numerous other improvements have greatly in¬ 
creased the safety, dependability and uniformity of all types of 
American flash bulbs. They are now just about as standardized in 
their performance as are modern film emulsions. 


14 



“Flash, 1898 ” 


Don Paul 


The construction of a typical flash bulb is indicated in the dia¬ 
gram in Figure 1. 

The general construction resembles that of an ordinary incan¬ 
descent light. Instead, however, of a vacuum, or of inert gases, the 
flash bulb is filled with dry oxygen at a pressure varying from about 
four-fifths of an atmosphere with the G. E. bulbs to nearly three 
atmospheres with the Wabash product. This oxygen insures efficient 
combustion of the flash compound. Loss of part of the oxygen 
through damage or faulty construction results in excessive lag or 
mis-firing of the bulb. 

B indicates the mechanism for firing the bulb. The two lead 


15 










wires are tipped with a small amount of priming compound, which 
is an explosive. The lead wires are joined by a hair-thin filament. 
Because of its thinness, the filament has high electrical resistance, 
and is instantly raised to white heat by the passage of current. The 
heat sets off the primer, which explodes, throwing out sparks which 
ignite the wire or foil filling of the bulb. 

In the first flash bulbs, the filling, C, was aluminum foil. Wabash 
introduced the use of wire for filling. The wire is an alloy, designated 
as “hydronalium,” containing five metals. There is some difference, 
as we will see in the next chapter, in the behavior of wire and foil 
filled bulbs. 

An interesting recent development among flash bulbs is the 
General Electric SM (which stands for Speed Midget). This bulb 
contains no wire filler. The sole illuminant is an extra large dose 
of the priming compound. Since there is no filler to kindle, the 
time lag is practically negligible, no greater than the lag of the 
shutter. 

Below the filling, there is an asbestos shield, D. This protects 
the base of the bulb from damage by heat. It also keeps the neck 
of the bulb reasonably cool, so that the bulb may be removed with¬ 
out burning the fingers if it is grasped low on the neck. 

All American-made bulbs are now provided with a safety coat¬ 
ing. In the early days, there were numerous cases of persons being 
injured by flying fragments from exploding bulbs. This danger is 
now obviated by the device of a safety coating of transparent lacquer 
inside and out of the glass. The toughness of the protective coating 
is revealed by a simple experiment: by tapping a cracked bulb 
sharply with a pencil, it is possible to break the glass into tiny 
fragments which fall inside the bulb without fracturing the outside 
coating at all. 

The majority of flash bulbs are made with a standard base, E. 
This enables them to be fitted into the standard light socket. The 
midget bulbs, G. E. “SM,” #5 and #6 and Wabash Press-25, are, 
however, made with a bayonet base, similar to head-light bulbs. 

Thanks to the high degree of dependability of modern flash bulbs, 
relatively few failures are traceable to the bulbs themselves. We 


16 


should note, however, the sources of these infrequent functional 
failures. 

1. Loss of oxygen. An excess of oxygen is essential to the 
efficient combustion of the foil or wire filling. Loss of 
oxygen causes excessive lag or even misfiring of the bulb. 
The Wabash bulb has an ingenious device to show when 
the bulb lacks proper oxygen content. This consists of a 
small spot of cobalt salts in the tip of the bulb. In a 
proper concentration of oxygen, this spot is bright blue. 
It fades, however, to pink when the oxygen is depleted. 

2. Broken filament. Heavy jars or faulty construction may 
lead to the breaking of the filament. Ordinarily, the 
breaking of this filament will lead only to the misfiring 
of the bulb. In exceptional conditions, however, a broken 
filament may be a source of danger. If the filament is 
broken but still loosely in contact, passage of the current 
may produce an arc, resulting in the combustion of the 
lead wires, with explosion of the bulb, and burning metal 
thrown out through the glass. This type of accident, it 
should be said by way of reassurance, is very rare indeed. 
The condition of the filament may be accurately checked 
only by the use of a neon test lamp. 

3. Lack of uniformity. Uniformity of behavior is the very 
postulate of flash photography. The photographer must 
know in advance just what his flash bulb will do, and be 
absolutely certain that it will deliver the goods. The mod¬ 
ern American flash bulb is, fortunately, extremely uni¬ 
form in its behavior, for there are no cheaply made 
competitive goods to bring down the standards. 


17 


Chapter Two 


The Behavior of Flash Bulbs 

In the preceding chapter we considered the construction of the 
flash bulb. We come now to consideration of its habits and behavior. 

The Cycle of the Flash. 

When we set off a flash, we are conscious only of a brief flare of 
light, lasting rather less than the proverbial “twinkling of an eye.” 
But if we put this extremely brief procedure under a microscope as 
it were, or subject it to a slowing down process, we find that there is 
considerable going on. Let me ennumerate, in order, the things that 
happen from the instant that the button is pushed and the current 
passes through the bulb. 

1. Current passes through filament. 

2. Filament becomes white hot. 

3. Filament breaks. Current stops flowing through lamp. 

4. Almost instantly the primer explodes. 

5. Lag while wire or foil filler ignites. 

6. Flash begins. 

7. Flash builds in brightness. 

8. Flash reaches peak of brightness. 

9. Flash dies away. 

10. Flash ceases. 

Here is a sequence of ten procedures at least, all taking place 


18 


within that period of time usually described as “an instant.” Actual¬ 
ly, the total duration of time involved is somewhere near one- 
twentieth of a second. These are microscopic time intervals, but in 
photography, as in modern industry, efficiency depends upon punc- 
tillious handling of very small elements. Micrometric accuracy in 
timing is needed to make efficient use of the illumination of the flash 
bulb. 

To properly appreciate the relationship of such microscopic time 
intervals, it is necessary to put them under some sort of magnifying 
glass. This is best done by graphic representation. But before we 
construct our graph, we must pause a moment to define our terms 
of measurement. 

Terms Defined. 

There are three technical terms that need to be understood in 
any discussion of the behavior of flash bulbs. 

1. The first of these is millisecond. A millisecond is simply 
one-thousandth of a second. The term is used because a 
second is much too large a unit for use in dealing with 
such small intervals of time. 

2. The second term is lumen. The lumen is the universal 
measure of light. It is officially defined as the amount of 
light passing through a unit solid angle (one steradian) 
from a point source of one candlepower at the apex of 
the angle. This “unit solid angle” business is rather tech¬ 
nical, but it may be approximately visualized as follows: 
imagine a light source of 1 candlepower shining through 
a one-foot-square hole in the wall, every corner of the 
hole being one foot distant from the light. Under these 
conditions, the amount of light passing through the hole 
would be about 1 lumen. Note that the lumen measures 
the amount of light, not its brightness or illuminating 
power. Thus the square beam under consideration would 
be only 1/16 as bright at 4 feet from the source, hut the 
whole beam would still comprise 1 lumen.* 

* The measure of illumination or light density, however, is tied in closely with the lumen. 
Illumination is customarily measured in “foot candles,” the unit which appears on the G. E. photocell 
light meter. A “foot candle” means 1 lumen per square foot of area. 


19 



LIGHT IN MILLIONS OF LUMENS 


Figure 2. 



TIME IN MILLISECONDS 


Typical curve of flashbulb 
performance. Each horizon¬ 
tal division indicates a 
duration of five millisec¬ 
onds (1/200 of a second). 
Each vertical division indi¬ 
cates a light output of one- 
half million lumens. The 
brackets show the portions 
of the curve usually em¬ 
braced by synchronized ex¬ 
posures of 1/200,1/100, and 
1/50 respectively. 


3. The third unit, slightly more complex, is the lumen- 
second. A lumen-second consists of one lumen lasting 
for one second. Ten lumen-seconds could be either one 
lumen for ten seconds or ten lumens for one second. The 
lumen-second is thus comparable to such units as the 
“man-hour”: a given job of work, let us say, may be 
done by one man in ten hours, by two men in five hours, 
or by ten men in one hour. The lumen-second is readily 
understood by the photographer in terms of exposure: 
an identical exposure would be secured by illuminating 
with ten candles for one second or with one candle for 
ten seconds. 

Graphic Representation of Flash Behavior. 

The behavior of the flash bulb is ordinarily represented on a 
graph such as Figure 2. Here the intensity of the light (in millions 
of lumens) is plotted on the vertical axis. The horizontal axis of the 
graph represents (in milliseconds) the time elapsed. The graph thus 
represents the brightness of the flash for every millisecond during 


20 

































Figure 3. 

Three types of flash peaks, 
characteristic respectively 
of foil-filled bulbs, wire- 
filled bulbs, and bulbs espe¬ 
cially designed for use with 
focal-plane shutters. 



its duration. The total output of light is represented hy the area 
under the curve —since, as we have seen in the definition of terms, 
lumen-seconds equal lumens multiplied by seconds. 

The curve shown in Figure 2 is typical of flash bulb performance. 
Note the general trend of the curve: the bulb does not kindle until 
about 5 milliseconds after the current is turned on; it takes about 
10 more milliseconds to get going; at 20 milliseconds, it is really 
under way; and at about 20 to 25 milliseconds it reaches its peak , 
or point of maximum brightness. Beyond the peak, the curve falls 
away in a similar contour, and in about 50 milliseconds from the 
instant the current is turned on, the bulb is dead. Certainly a 
brief career, but an exciting one.* 

Comparing curves of performance, we may note three general 
types (Figure 3): 

1. High peaks 

2. Wide peaks 

3. Flat peaks. 

* Even more transitory is the life cycle of the General Electric Speed Midget (SM) bulb. It 
kindles almost instantly and reaches its peak in only 5 milliseconds. In about 12 milliseconds, its 
brief race is run. Because of its quick starting, this bulb presents a special problem in synchroniza¬ 
tion. 


21 








The flat peak is characteristic of the bulb specially designed for 
focal plane shutters (General Electric #6 and # 31, Wabash #2A). 
High peaks and wide peaks are characteristic respectively of foil- 
filled and wire-filled bulbs. The foil-filled bulb is slower in starting, 
but rises more quickly to its peak, than does the wire-filled type. 
Thus the G. E. No. 21 (foil-filled) does not kindle until about 12 
milliseconds, but it reaches its peak in 20 milliseconds. On the other 
hand, the G. E. No. 16A (wire-filled) starts at 5 milliseconds and 
reaches its peak in about 22 milliseconds. In the larger Wabash 
bulbs (which are all wire-filled) the peak is delayed to 26 or 27 
milliseconds. 

All factors must be considered in judging the performance of a 
bulb. Mere brightness does not tell the tale; often the total output 
is more important. Thus the G. E. No. 21 reaches the terrific peak 
of 4^/2 million lumens, but its total output is considerably less than 
that of the No. 31, which barely reaches 1^4 million lumens at its 
peak. For open-and-shut shots, or for closely synchronized short 
exposures, the high-peak, foil-filled lamps have their place; but for 
all-round use, particularly in the hands of amateurs, the wider- 
peaked wire-filled lamps are to be more generally recommended. 

Manufacturer s Analysis. 

As a supplement to this chapter, we include the manufacturers’ 
descriptions and data on General Electric and Wabash flash bulbs. 


Wabash Super flash Bulbs. 

Super flash Press 25 — The most 
powerful midget flash bulb ever 
made, in a new “even-light” shape 
scientifically designed for maximum 
efficiency with standard as well as 
“concentrating” reflectors. To he 
used on 1.5 to 9 volts only, not on 
house current. 

Super flash No. 0 — The powerful 
baby flash bulb and the largest-sell¬ 
ing baby size for all amateur use, 


especially with the new built-in flash 
cameras. Its wide-peak flash has the 
same carefully controlled character¬ 
istics as the other Superflash sizes, 
and is guaranteed for synchronized 
use. 

Superflash Press 40 —Now 30% to 
65% smaller than ordinary flash 
bulbs of the same light output. Ex¬ 
tra-power “long-peak” light flash as- 


22 



Figure 4. The Wabash family. Left to right: Press 25, No. 0, Press 40, Press 50, No. 2, 

No. 2A, and No. 3. 


sures perfect, foolproof high speed 
synchronizing, plus use for focal 
plane minicameras. Carefully con¬ 
trolled timing and flashing charac¬ 
teristics. Light output is 43% to 
100% greater than same size ordi¬ 
nary bulbs. 

Superflash Press 50 — An extra¬ 
power professional “press” bulb in 
the same synchronization band as 
the Press 40. Has high-powered, ex¬ 
tra peak-light flash, controlled uni¬ 
formity, guaranteed split second 
synchronization at high shutter 


speeds, plus the advantage of 25% 
greater light output than any ordi¬ 
nary flash bulb of the same size. 

Superflash No. 2 —A high-powered 
bulb recommended for synchroniz¬ 
ing with all compur or between-the- 
lens shutters, and for some focal 
plane minicameras. Timing and 
flashing characteristics controlled 
within closest limits assuring uni¬ 
form results especially when wired 
in series or multiple circuits for ban¬ 
quet shots, etc. 


23 








Figure 5. 


Superflash No. 2A —For use with 
focal plane cameras only and not for 
compur or between-the-lens shutters. 
Made with an unusually long “pla¬ 
teau-peak,"’ assuring high-speed syn¬ 
chronized action shots at speeds up 
to l/1000th of a second with the 
large focal plane hack shutters as on 
the 4x5" Graflex and Speed Graph¬ 
ics. 

Super flash No. 3X (not illustrat¬ 
ed) —A new, high-powered profes¬ 
sional size that develops a broad- 
peak flash that is ideal for penetrat¬ 
ing distance and for covering large, 
wide areas as in stadium scenes, large 
halls and industrial plants, crowds, 


training station and airport scenes, 
etc. Is in the same synchronization 
hand as the No. 3, and is precision- 
timed for multiple flash work in 
black and white as well as in color. 
Same bulb size as the No. 2A. 

Superflash No. 3 —The most pow¬ 
erful flash bulb capable of synchron¬ 
izing. Especially recommended for 
multiple flashing and wide-area ban¬ 
quet shots. To get maximum effec¬ 
tiveness of extra peak light flash 
duration, synchronizing is recom¬ 
mended at speeds up to l/100th of 
a second; no relays or accessories 
required. 


24 










































































Press 25 

No. 0 

Press 40 

Press 50 

No. 2 

No. 2A 

No. 3X 

No. 3 

Total Light Output 

Lumen Seconds 

25,000 

25,000 

40,000 

50,000 

70,000 

80,000 

110,000 

140,000 

Peak Lumens 

1,100,000 

1,400,000 

2,000,000 

2,800,000 

3,500,000 

1,700,000 

4,500,000 

6,000,000 

Time to S^art of 

Flash — milliseconds 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

Time to Peak of 

Flash — milliseconds 

23 

23 

23 

23 

25 

23 

26 

28 

Effective Flash 

Duration — milliseconds 

40 

30 

37 

37 

47 

70 

51 

55 

Duration Above 50% 

Peak — milliseconds 

20 

16 

18 

16 

17 

50 

19 

21 

Voltage required for 

Flash — volts 

1.5 9 

1.5-125 

1.5 125 

1.5-125 

1.5-125 

1.5-9 

1.5-125 

1.5-125 

Aver. Current to Flash 

Lamps — amps. 

0.25 

0.25 

0.25 

0.25 

0.25 

0.25 

0.25 

0.25 

Max. Instantaneous 

Current Battery — amps. 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Color Temperature — 

Degrees Kelvin 

4,000°K 

4,090°K 

4,000 ° K 

4,000°K 

4,000°K 

4,000 <> K 

4,000'K 

4,000 <> K 

Overall Length — 

Inches 

23/8 

3 13/16 

3-15/16 

4-1/16 

4 3/4 

5-3/8 

5 3/8 

6 5/8 

Bulb Shape 

B12 

S13 

A15 

A17 

A19 

A21 

A21 

A23 


Table I 


Color Flash Bulbs 

These four self-filtering blue Su¬ 
perflash bulbs are designed for use 
with color film only. Exposure data 
is given in Chapter 4. Light output 
figures in Table II are arbitrary 
figures for a comparative basis in 
computing exposures. 

New Super flash No. OB — Made in 


the same bulb size as the Standard 
No. 0. 

New Super flash No. 40 B —In the 
same bulb size as the standard Press 
40. 

Super flash No. 2B — In the same 
bulb size as the standard No. 2. 

Superflash No. 3B — In the same 
bulb size as the standard No. 3. 



No. OB 

No. 40B 

No. 2B 

No. 3B 

Total Light Output in Lumen Seconds 

12,000 

18,000 

42,000 

85,000 

Time to Start of Flash—P/Tilliseconds 

7 

7 

7 

7 

Time to Peak of Flash—Milliseconds 

23 

23 

25 

28 

Effective Flash Duration—Milliseconds 

30 

37 

47 

55 

Duration Above 50% Peak—Milliseconds 

16 

18 

17 

21 

Voltage Required for Flash—Volts 

1.5-125 

1.5-125 

1.5-125 

1.5-125 

Aver. Current to Flash Lamps—Amperes 

0.25 

0.25 

0.25 

0.25 

Max. Instantaneous Current Battery—Amps. 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Color Temperature—Degrees Kelvin 

6000 °K. 

6000 °K 

6000 °K 

6000 °K 


Table II 


25 






































Figure 6. The General Electric family. Left to right, SM, No. 5, No. 6, No. 11, No. 16A, 

No. 21, No. 21B, No. 31, No. 50. 


General Electric Photoflash Lamps. 


SPEFO MIDGET 

SM 

Total Light: 4.500 to 
5.000 L.S. Peak: 0.7 
million lumens. Dura¬ 
tion above peak: 
1/200 second (10 milli¬ 
seconds). 



SYNCHROPRESS 

No. 5 

Total Light: 17.000 
to 19.000 lumen sec¬ 
onds. Peak: 1.2 million 
lumens. 



Swift, low-intensity flash. For 
all-around near-distance pictures, 
in proper reflectors. Stops action 
on “open” flash about as effec¬ 
tively as a 1 ,/200th second shutter 
setting. Synchronization is 
simple, accurate and positive, 
with special synchronizers. For 
battery flashing only. 


Excellent for all-around flash 
pictures in proper reflectors. 
Precise, uniform, split-second 
flash, ideal for synchronized use 
with between-the-lens shutters. 
Bayonet base permits quick 
changes, holds bulb tight in 
accurate position. Adapters fit 
it to present equipment. Two 
dozen go into a coat pocket. For 
battery flashing only. 



FOCAL PLANE 

No. 6 

Total Light: 16.000 to 
18,000 lumen seconds. 
Peak: ^ million lumens 
Duration above V 2 peak: 
1/30 second (30 milli¬ 
seconds). 



shutters except those requiring 
the ultra-Ion^ peak of the No. 
31 lamp. This includes most 
cameras up to 3% x 4^. Bayonet 
base for quick handling, secure 
contact. Midget size and con¬ 
venience. Especially effective in 
concentrating reflectors. For 
battery flashing only. 


SYNCHROPRESS 

No. 11 

Total Light: 28.000 
to 32,000 lumen 
seconds. Peak: 2 
million lumens. 



Small, general purpose lamp for 
open flash shots, and for accurate 
synchronizers in press and ama¬ 
teur use, with between-the-lens 
shutters. Excellent for low-cost 
cameras with built-in synchro¬ 
nization. Operates on voltages 
ranging from 3 to 125, direct or 
alternating current. 





Figure 7 . Data on G. E. ‘‘Photoflash” lamps SM, No. 5, No. 6, and No. 11. 


26 































































































































LIGHT-MILLIONS OF LUMENS 



SYNCHRO PRESS 

No. 16A 

Total Light: 40.000 
to 45,000 lumen 
second*. Peak: 2.6 
million lumens. 




































r 







fan 









Ufa) 



6 

1 






















/ 

\ 








1 


/ 

\ 









/ 











V 









> 

V, 







For all-around press and com¬ 
mercial use, except for extreme 
distance shots. Wide illumi¬ 
nation peak adequately covers 
variations and errors in synchro¬ 
nization with between-the-lens 
shutters. Useful with focal plane 
shutters on some miniature 
cameras. For battery flashing 
only. 



SYNCHRO-PRESS 

No. 21 

Foil filled. Total 
Light: 50,000 to 
60,000 lumen 
secouds. Peak: 4.5 
million lumens. 



High peak for extra covering 
power for press use with between- 
the-lens shutter synchronizers 
and for open flash. No. 21-B— 
Same construction as 21, with 
blue filter coating for correct 
rendition with Outdoor type color 
films. Operates on voltages 
ranging from 3 to 125, direct or 
alternating current. 


A 

FOCAL PLANE 

No. 31 

Total: 70,000 to 80.- 
000 L.S. Peak: 1.5 
million lumen*. 
Duration above l A 
peak 1/20 second 
(53 milliseconds). 




.. 































... 

5 

| 

i .. 

\ 



















































_ 

_ 

































imomi 




For high shutter speed synchro¬ 
nization with focal plane shutters 
for 4 by 5 inch negative size 
and less. The ultra-long peak 
of illumination provides ample 
light on the subject during the 
full time the shutter is open. 

For battery flashing only. 



PH0T0FLASH 

No. 50 

Total: 110,000 to 
125.000 L.S. Peak: 
6 million lumens. 
Duration above A 
peak 1/80 second 
(13 millisecoods). 



Great light intensity in compact 
bulb size, to cover large areas and 
for color photography. 30 mil¬ 
lisecond peak synchronizes at 
1/50 second or longer. Operates 
on 3 to 125 volts direct or alter¬ 
nating current. 


Figure 8. Data on G. E. “ Photoflash ” lamps No. 16A, No. 21, No. 31, and No. 50. 



TIME-LIGHT CURVES—SCREW BASE PHOTOFLASH LAMPS 


Figure 9. Time-Light characteristics of G. E. “Photoflash' lamps. 


27 


































































































































































































































Chapter Thr ee 


The problem of synchronization 


In the early days of the flash bulb, it was used only hy the “open 
flash” method. This is the simplest way of using the flash. It requires 
no additional equipment aside from a flash hulb and an ordinary 
flash-light battery. (See Figure 10.) It is inexpensive and available 
to any amateur with any sort of camera. One simply sets the shutter 
at “Time,” opens the shutter, flashes the bulb, closes the shutter. 

The “open flash” is, of course, a hold-over from the old days of 
flash powder, which was used in the same manner. And the open 
flash is useful only under the same conditions in which the flash 
powder was used: night time or subdued light, so that the only 
effective exposure is that furnished by the flash. 

The really productive field of the flash bulb, however, is that 
made available by synchronization. 

What do we mean by “synchronization”? Broadly speaking, 
synchronization means simply the exact coordination of shutter 
action and flash action so that they arrive at their full efficiency 
simultaneously. 

Off-hand this might appear to be a simple mechanical problem. 
But it is not quite so simple as it looks. Neither flash nor shutter 
operate instantaneously. It takes a flash bulb about 20/1000 of a 


28 


Figure 10. 

The Open Flash or “Open- 
and-Shut.” 

Photo by Rus Arnold. 



second to reach its peak illumination: a good between-the-lens shut¬ 
ter, however, is full open in 6/1000 of a second. So we see that 
the problem of synchronization is a little more complicated than it 
appears at first sight. 

By way of rough analogy, the problem might be stated as follows. 
You have two horses, Flash and Shutter. Flash, belying his name, 
is the slower beast; in fact, Shutter is about three times faster than 
Flash. However, for your purposes, you wish them to run a course 
and both to reach the wire at the same time. How would you manage 
it? The obvious procedure would be to send the slower Flash on his 
way first, and when he had run about two thirds of the course, send 
along the more zippy Shutter. Handled this way, the two ponies 
would arrive at the finish simultaneously. 


29 







Iii rough terms, the above action is exactly that accomplished by 
all synchronizing devices: by various means, depending upon the 
type of synchronizer used, the shutter action is delayed until the 
slower acting flash has time to get under way. The actual intervals 
of time involved are very small indeed, so the amount of delay must 
be determined with extreme accuracy. 

The Behavior of Shutters. 

Since, in the modern use of the flash, the burning of the flash 
bulb is either mechanically or electrically “geared” to the action 
of the shutter, the behavior of the shutter is an important part of 
the problem of synchronization. 

When we look through old manuals of photography, we are 
struck by the large number of quaint and curious gadgets that have, 
in earlier ages of the art, been made to serve as shutters. But so 
far as modern cameras are concerned, shutters may be reduced to 
two general types: 

1. The between-the-lens shutter. 

2. The focal plane shutter. 

The basic principles of the two are widely different and offer quite 
different problems in synchronization. 

The so-called between-the-lens shutter is built between the ele¬ 
ments of the lens in a position as close as possible to that of the 
diaphragm. At this position, the bundle of beams making up the 
image is at its narrowest. This is an efficient position, since a fairly 
small opening serves to admit all the light passing through the lens. 
A shutter in this position is usually, like the diaphragm, of iris con¬ 
struction, opening from the center. This ensures equal illumination 
of all points of the image at all times during the exposure, even when 
the lens is barely opened or almost closed. 

An iris type of shutter is subject to considerable loss of efficiency 
when working at higher speeds. At a hundredth of a second, let us 
say, the shutter takes most of its time in opening and closing, and 
thus is wide open for only a couple of thousandths of a second. In 
view of this discrepancy, manufacturers always mark their shutters 
in terms of equivalent light values rather than actual time values. 


30 


That is to say, if your shutter is set at 1/100, the actual time from 
opening to closing will be considerably longer than 1/100 of a sec¬ 
ond. But the amount of light admitted will be the same that would 
be admitted if the shutter were wide-open for 1/100. 

Some added discrepancy is introduced with lenses so compen¬ 
sated when operating at reduced apertures, when the exposure seems 
greater than marked. This is because the iris of the shutter reaches 
the opening corresponding to the reduced aperture much more 
quickly than it does the full aperture. 

Owing to its lowered efficiency at high speeds, and also to the 
mechanical difficulties involved, this type of shutter is rarely made 
to furnish exposures less than 1/400. For extremely short exposures, 
recourse is had to the focal-plane type. 

The focal-plane shutter is built so as to operate as closely as 
possible to the plane of the sensitive emulsion. This is an efficient 
position for the shutter, since it is the point at which the individual 
beams making up the image are narrowest. In its usual form, the 
focal-plane shutter consists of a slitted curtain moving in front of 
the emulsion. Length of exposure is varied by controlling both the 
speed of the curtain and the width of the slit. 

Under ordinary conditions of light, the focal-plane shutter is 
nearly one hundred per-cent efficient. Its peculiar action, however, 
makes it less readily synchronized than the between-the-lens type. 
Instead of exposing the image to the emulsion all at once, as with a 
between-the-lens shutter, the focal-plane type wipes the image across 
the plate. The peculiar problem in synchronization thus involved is 
discussed a little later in this chapter. 

Types of Synchronizers . 

Synchronizing devices are broadly classified as manual, mechani¬ 
cal and electrical. This classification is apt to be a little confusing at 
first glance; for, obviously, electrical action is needed to set off the 
bulb in any type of synchronizer, and some sort of manual action 
is needed to punch the button. These terms, “manual,” “mechanical” 
and “electrical” should be understood as referring to the method 
by which the shutter is operated. 

In the manual type, the shutter is tripped by the direct action 


31 


of the hand-operated cable release, which first makes contact for 
the bulb and then moves on to actuate the shutter. This is the simplest 
and least expensive of all synchronizing devices, and is the basis of 
the operation of low-priced cameras with built-in synchronizers. 
It is dependable and positive in its action, but is not extremely 
accurate. The time lag in a manual type of synchronizer may he 
materially altered by the way in which the cable release is operated. 
If the release is pushed down abruptly, the bulb may fire too late; 
and if it is operated gently, the bulb may fire too soon. An even 
and constant pressure is required for its consistent operation. The 
manual type is not generally capable of synchronizing shutter speeds 
higher than 1/100. 

A partial list of manual type synchronizers now in the market: 
Chardelle “Meteor” 

Fey 

Flash King 
Hipco 

Kodak Junior Synchronizer 
Victor 

In the mechanical type of synchronizer, the cable release simul¬ 
taneously makes contact for the bulb and sets off a time-consuming 
mechanical action. In the Kalart device, for example, there is a 
little fly wheel which spins and, at the end of its revolution, operates 
the shutter. At is best, this type is reasonably priced and thoroughly 
accurate for speeds as high as 1/500. 

Mechanical types now on the market include the following: 
Hipwell 
Kalart 

The electric type of synchronizer is operated by an electric but¬ 
ton which simultaneously makes contact for the bulb and the sole¬ 
noid coil (usually mounted on the lens board) which actuates the 
shutter. When properly adjusted, the electrical type is extremely 
accurate for speeds as high as 1/1000. It is, however, subject to 
electrical quirks. Operation of the solenoid coil draws more current 
than the mere firing of bulbs, so the batteries become rapidly de¬ 
pleted. Weak batteries or bad connections may seriously upset the 
synchronization. 


32 



Two typical synchronizer set-ups. 

Figure 11. Zeiss Super-lkonta B with Kalart Figure 12. Speed Graphic ivith Abbey Flash- 
Automatic Speed Flash (mechanical type of gun (electrical type of synchronizer). 

synchronizer). 


Standard makes of electrical synchronizers include the following: 
Ahbey 

Folm'er-Graflex 
Heiland Sol 
Mendelsohn 

Unfortunately, almost every make of shutter requires individual 
adaptation of the synchronizer. Some shutters operate on a short 
stroke, others on a long stroke; some are stiff in their action, others 
very soft. All these peculiarities make a genuinely universal type 
of synchronizer an impossibility. 

Concerning the relative virtues of these devices, their installation 
and adjustment, this book offers no suggestions. These matters are 
between you and your dealer. 

Fitting the Shutter to the Curve. 

Figure 2 shows the conventional graphic representation of the 
performance of a typical flash lamp. The horizontal axis represents 
the time, in milliseconds, from the instant that electrical contact is 


33 



made. The vertical axis represents, in millions of lumens, the amount 
of light put forth. Each single point on the curve represents the 
brightness of the bulb at a particular moment in its cycle. 

Look now at the contour of the curve. For five milliseconds there 
is nothing doing. Then the filler in the bulb catches fire. For the 
next five milliseconds it barely simmers. In the third five milli¬ 
seconds it begins to warm up a bit. From fifteen to twenty milli¬ 
seconds it is climbing rapidly. Finally, twenty to twenty-five milli¬ 
seconds after the contact is made, the flash reaches its peak. 

Passing the peak, the flash fades in about the same rhythm with 
which it grew. About fifty milliseconds after the current was turned 
on, it dies away completely. 

Synchronization is usually adjusted so that the shutter opens at 
the twentieth millisecond, just as the curve goes into its final steep 
climb toward the peak. An exposure of 1/200 of a second (5 milli¬ 
seconds) includes, therefore, the light available between this point 
and the peak of the flash. This amount (see Figure 13) is about 25% 
of the total output. An exposure of 1/100 of a second (10 milli¬ 
seconds) includes also a nearly equal amount on the other side of 
the peak, about 55% of the total. And an exposure of 1/50 of a 
second (20 milliseconds) runs well down into the tail of the curve 
and utilizes about 85% of the output.* 

Note that the short exposures get the “cream of the crop.” Al¬ 
though 1/50 of a second is four times as long as 1/200, it gets only 
2Yz times as much light. Failure to allow for this fact is a frequent 
cause of discrepancies in exposure. 

Fitting the Curve to the Shutter: The case of the Focal Plane. 

The focal plane shutter offers a special problem in synchroniza¬ 
tion. With shutters of the between-the-lens type, the whole plate is 
exposed at once. The exposure with the focal plane type, however, 
is a sort of wiping action, in which one edge of the picture is exposed 
before the other. This discrepancy is not ordinarily apparent in the 
results, except in the case of very rapid action in the subject (which 
may produce peculiar distortions) and in the case of synchronized 

* These generalizations do not apply to the G. E. “SM,” which utilizes 70% of the light at 1/200 
and 100% at 1/100 or slower. 


34 



Figure 13. Comparative ef¬ 
fectiveness of exposures of 
1/200, 1/100, and 1/50. 



yko 



flash (which may produce uneven illumination). It must he remem¬ 
bered that the total time it takes the slit in the focal plane shutter 
to move across the plate is considerably longer than the exposure 
time given to any one point on the plate. The slit must accomplish 
its transit within the brief period of the bulb’s full efficiency: other¬ 
wise, the negative will be more heavily exposed toward one edge 
than the other. 

Contax cameras, in which the shutter moves across the shorter 
dimension of the frame, may he successfully synchronized with such 
bulbs as Wabash 40 and 50 or G. E. 16A and #5. In Leica cameras, 
the shutter moves on the longer dimension. They require bulbs with 
slightly longer peak such as Wahasli 50 or #2, or G. E. #6, #31. 

Larger reflex cameras, in which the shutter slit has a long way 
to travel, require under ordinary conditions* a bulb of extra long 
peak, specially designed for focal plane use. (See Figures 5 and 9.) 
Such special bulbs are the G. E. No. 31 and the Wabash 2A. 

* it is commonly considered impossible to synchronize a large Graflex with an ordinary flash bulb. 
It IS impossible with the camera as usually adjusted. However, a fairly simple readjustment, pro¬ 
viding a wider slit and heavier tension in the curtain, make it entirely feasible to synchronize a 4x5 
Graflex with a midget bulb. 


35 














Chapter Four 


The Problem of Exposure with Flash 


Ill flash photography, as in all branches of photography, a very 
touchy and treacherous problem is that of exposure. Exposure is 
the very crux of that interlocking series of procedures that we call 
photography. If exposure is wrong, everything that goes before it, 
and everything that comes after it, is largely invalidated. If your 
exposure is wrong, there is really nothing to be done about it; “Nor 
all your piety or wit”—nor all your chromium intensifies or Farm¬ 
er’s reducers—“shall lure it back to cancel half a line”—or make 
a decent picture out of it. For the purposes of good photography, 
there is nothing quite so advantageous as a correct exposure, nor is 
there any adequate substitute for it. 

So make up your mind that you must have a good exposure. 
Otherwise, it really doesn’t matter what kind of a camera you have, 
what kind of film you put into it, what sort of synchronizer or what 
size of bulb you use; nor does it matter what you develop your film 
in, how you print it or how you mount the result. Briefly, without 
correct exposure, nothing matters. 

Unhappily, whenever any new gadget is being tested, or any new 
photographic wrinkle is being tried out, enthusiastic amateurs lose 
all sense of proportion and photographic values. A great deal of 
photographic experience runs along these lines: when the beginner 


36 


gets his first camera, he will settle for nothing better than a barely 
recognizable image; when he gets around to the matter of fine grain 
(a few months or years later), he gets fine grain, or else—whether 
the negative will print or not is not anything to bother his pretty 
head about. So, when our man takes up flash, he is well content if 
the flash goes off as specified and he gets some sort of mark on his 
negative to show that the event has taken place. 

But flash, like any other photographic innovation, must justify 
itself photographically if it is to become a permanent part of photo¬ 
graphic procedure. Flash cannot wholly justify itself by mere stunt 
pictures—pictures that could not be comfortably gotten in any other 
way; rather it must justify itself the hard way—by the severe test 
of photographic quality. It is a hard fact, but a distressingly high 
percentage of the pictures offered in evidence by the flash manufac¬ 
turers are not so hot photographically. They show you the use of 
the flash, to be sure, but they don’t show you good photographic 
technique. 

Of all photographic errors evinced in flash pictures, the most 
frequently encountered is bad exposure. There are two things that 
make exposure a particularly touchy problem in flash. In the first 
place, the volume of light put out by the flash bulb is almost unbe¬ 
lievably high. The Wabash “Press 40,” for example, is a medium¬ 
sized bulb in common use. Among household globes, a 100-watt 
lamp rates as pretty bright. But it would take fifteen hundred of 
these 100-watt lamps to equal the light output of the peak of the 
flash of the Press 40. And at seven feet from the subject, this bulb 
is approximately as bright as the noonday sun. 

With such potent sources of light at hand, it is small wonder that 
we go widely astray in our exposures at first. Having a light source 
of such astronomical volume hitched right to your camera provides 
you with an embarrassment of power and you feel rather like one 
who sets out to lift a tea cup with a blast of TNT. It can be done, 
but knowledge and control must be brought to bear. 

The other element that contributes heavily to bad exposures 
with flash is the rapid falling off of illumination with increasing 
distance from the flash bulb. Never so clearly demonstrated is the 


37 


old rule of inverse squares as in the use of flash: at double the dis¬ 
tance, your subject gets only one quarter as much light; and at four 
times the distance, it gets hut one-sixteenth as much. And the closer 
you get, the more noticeable is the discrepancy. Efforts at com¬ 
promise result in those pictures so unhappily common in the annals 
of flash photography, with foreground over-exposed and background 
under-exposed. 

Eight Factors. 

The control of exposure with flash is not a simple problem. It 
involves the interaction of at least eight factors. Six of these factors 
concern your equipment and its operation: 

1. Film speed 

2. Size of flash bulb (and number used) 

3. Distance from bulb to subject 

4. Type of reflector 

5. Shutter speed 

6. Diaphragm opening. 

The other two factors concern the quality of your subject matter: 

7. Reflecting surfaces surrounding your subject. 

8. Colour and texture of subject matter itself. 

1. Film speed. Because flash is a speed process, there is a sym¬ 
pathetically induced inclination to use nothing hut high speed films 
in connection with it. To do this, however, is to sacrifice photographic 
quality: for the hyper-extra emulsions are necessarily lacking in the 
best gradation and half-tones and, for miniature use, have noticeably 
larger grain. Rather one should take advantage of the higher speed 
of the flash by using as slow a film as possible. Properly used, flash 
has the effect of speeding up a slow film while still retaining its 
superior quality. Except, therefore, in cases where speed is the 
essential issue, make no departure from the film you customarily 
use when you want the best of photographic quality—preferably a 
film of no higher a Weston rating than Tungsten 32. 

2. Size of bulb. Flash bulbs are now available in a wide range 
of sizes. In the Wabash line, the bulbs vary from the midget Press-25 
(at 1 million lumens) to the No. 3 (at 6 million lumens). (See Figure 
4.) In the General Electric line, bulb sizes vary from the Speed 


38 


Midget “SM” (at half a million lumens) to the super-colossal No. 
75 (at 10 million lumens). (See Figure 6.) 

The average amateur, however, will have no occasion to employ 
the full range of sizes. To attempt it would probably bring him to 
a state of complete confusion. Let him instead pick out about three 
sizes of varying power and learn how to use these consistently and 
intelligently. In the Wabash line I would suggest the following: 

Press-25 (or No. 0) .... 25,000 lumen seconds 

Press-40 . 40,000 lumen seconds 

No. 2 . 70,000 lumen seconds 

And in the G. E. line: 

No. 5 17,000 to 19,000 lumen seconds 

No. 16A. 40,000 to 45,000 lumen seconds 

No. 21 . 50,000 to 60,000 lumen seconds 

And for focal plane use: 

Wabash No. 2A. 80,000 lumen seconds 

G. E. No. 31 . . . 70,000 to 80,000 lumen seconds* 

This range of bulbs is sufficient to meet ordinary flash needs. A 
good general rule to follow in fitting the bulb size to the use is the 
following: When in doubt, use the smaller bulb. Far more flash 
pictures have been spoiled by too much light than by too little. 

It might seem advantageous for the photographer to limit him¬ 
self to a single size of flash bulb and thus simplify and standardize 
his technique. Theoretically, this would be an ideal procedure, but 
it does not work out in practice. A weak bulb, for example, would 
not have sufficient power for anything except close-ups. On the other 
hand, using a large bulb for a close-up is a wasteful procedure. 
Indeed, the average lens does not close down far enough to avoid 
over-exposure when a large bulb is used at close quarters. 

3. Distance from bulb to subject. We shall often have occasion 
in this book to refer to “the law of inverse squares,” the fact that 
at 2 feet from the light source you get just one-quarter as much light 
as at 1 foot, at 4 feet you get one sixteenth as much, while at 10 feet 
you get only 1/100 as much. This means that exposures are very 
strongly affected by seemingly slight alterations in distance, par¬ 
ticularly when working close in. 

* Above ratings according to manufacturers’ specifications. 


39 






Distance is thus a very important means of controlling the flash. 
In multiple-flash and sun-plus-flash combinations, as we shall see, 
distance is the principal factor in establishing proper balance be¬ 
tween the several sources. 

With a single flash, distance multiplied by F: number gives a 
constant product. This convenient fact makes possible the use of 
the “flash numbers,” which appear in the following exposure tables. 
For example, if for an exposure of 1/200 the “flash number” is 
stated as 160, a flash distance of 10 feet would call for F:16, 8 feet 
would call for F :20, and 4 feet would call for F :40. 

4. Type of reflector. The reflector plays a more important part 
in flash photography than is generally realized. With flash lamps of 
the standard screw base type, the average flat reflector such as is 
furnished with the synchronizer will increase the light reaching the 
subject 2 to 5 times over that given by the bare lamp. Reflectors 
specially designed for use with midget bulbs are much more efficient 
and increase the light on the subject from 6 to 15 times. The most 
efficient are those of the so-called “rifle-beam” type, which concen¬ 
trate the light in an approximately 30 degree beam. 

The more nearly the light source approximates the optical ideal 
of a “point source,” the more nearly completely its light can be 
controlled by a reflector and the greater its efficiency. This is the 
reason for the high effectiveness of midget bulbs. A seven inch 
reflector that increases the amount of light from a midget bulb 15 
times would probably increase the light from a larger bulb only 4 or 
5 times. Indeed, in order to get a similarly efficient performance 
from the large bulb, it would be necessary to use a reflector some¬ 
thing like 21 inches in diameter. The smaller the bulb, the smaller 
the reflector needs to be. If we had a flash bulb as small as a pepper¬ 
corn, we could have highly efficient performance with a reflector 
an inch in diameter. 

Another factor affecting efficiency is the screening action of the 
bulb itself. Most of the reflector surface immediately behind the 
bulb does not function because the bulb “gets in its own light.” 
The larger the bulb, of course, the greater the loss from this cause. 

It is necessary, therefore, that a bulb be fitted to a reflector of 


40 


the right size and type. Use of a bigger bulb will not necessarily 
give you more light unless you employ the right kind of reflector 
for it.* 

5 and 6. Shutter speed and diaphragm opening. In flash, shutter 
speed is a less accurate guide to exposure than is diaphragm opening. 
This fact is due to the peculiar pattern of the flash curve. (See Figure 
2.) Synchronization is generally adjusted to get the best part of the 
light in a short exposure. An exposure of 1/200 takes in the highest 
part of the curve approaching the peak. Extending the exposure to 
1/100 includes also the similar portion just beyond the peak. But 
an exposure of 1/50 takes in a considerable portion of the tail of 
the curve, where the light is failing rapidly. With an ordinary light 
source, an exposure of 1/50 is precisely four times as great as 1/200; 
but this is not the case with a flash bulb. With flash, an exposure of 
1/50 is noticeably less than four times as effective as 1/200. This 
inconsistency is more apparent in bulbs with a high peak. 

Results, therefore, are more directly comparable when F: set¬ 
tings are compared rather than shutter speeds. So it is the practice 
in flash photography to keep to a standard shutter speed in all cases 
possible, and to make exposure adjustments by means of the dia¬ 
phragm alone. 

7. Reflecting surfaces surrounding your subject. Standard ex¬ 
posure tables are based on the use of flash in an interior with what 
are rather vaguely designated as “normal,” “medium,” or “average 
colored” walls. Reflection, or the lack of it, from surrounding 
surfaces may substantially alter your exposure calculations. Nothing 
but a little experimentation will discover whether your own walls 
are hyper-normal, infra-medium or just ultra-average. 

Very light walls may necessitate closing down about half a stop 
(from F:16 to F:18, for example), while dark walls may require 
opening up a similar amount (say from F:16 to F:12.7). 

8. Nature of subject matter. The colour and texture of the sub¬ 
ject matter itself may also upset your exposure calculations. Ex- 


* It is not difficult to make a rough test of the efficiency of a reflector. Replace the flash bulb 
with an inside frosted incandescent of approximately the same size and shape. Plug it in the 110 
volt current and place it so it shines on a wall. With a light meter take the reading from the wall; 
first, of the bare lamp; second, of the lamp with the reflector in question. Comparison of the two 
readings will reveal the effectiveness of the reflector. 


41 



posure tables, as in the preceding case of surrounding surfaces, are 
based on subject matter which is presumably “normal,” “medium,” 
and “average.” Once more, common sense and possibly a little ex¬ 
perimentation will be needed to determine whether your subject 
matter departs widely from the hypothetical norm of the exposure 
tables. 

An unusually dark subject will require a slightly larger dia¬ 
phragm opening (possibly one-half stop), while very light coloured 
material will demand closing down to a similar extent. 

Calculating Exposure. 

In the good old days of photography, determination of exposure 
used to be achieved by a combination of hard practical experience 
and a sort of mystical intuition. The photographer would momen¬ 
tarily retire into the silences of his soul and emerge with the message, 
“One twenty-fifth of a second at Fill” —which surprisingly often 
turned out to be right. 

For the amateur, lacking both the practical experience and the 
private wire to the infinite, exposure was a source of much sorrow. 
For his benefit, there were compiled numerous exposure tables. 
These, however, were hedged about with so many variables in regard 
to subject matter, season of the year, state of the weather, time of 
day, etc., that the amateur was often more confused than benefited 
thereby. 

To the amateur, as well as the professional, the photo-cell meter 
was an expensive but valuable assistance. Although far from infal¬ 
lible, the meter was able to supply hard, factual information about 
lighting conditions and quickly translate it into photographic prac¬ 
tice. 

Now we have a new lighting source—the flash bulb. Thus far, 
we are not able, except indirectly, to use the photocell meter in 
connection with it. So, in the matter of exposure, so far as flash 
bulbs are concerned, we find ourselves thrust back into the old 
exposure table period, or even farther back into the era of guess¬ 
work. 

The saving element in the whole situation is the notable uni¬ 
formity of performance of the modern flash bulb. Once you have 


42 



Flash is unexcelled for animal portraiture. Note crisp rendering of fur and wide-open eyes. 


43 


determined how a given bulb will perform under given circum¬ 
stances, you are reasonably certain of uniform results henceforward 
under those conditions. 

Another sound rule for procedure is furnished by the inverse 
square law. If you know that a bulb produces a certain effect at 
(let us say) 10 feet, you know also that it will be four times as 
effective at 5 feet. 

Finally, it should be noted that, because both values progress 
arithmetically to express a geometric change in light intensity, the 
distance of the flash from the subject and the F: setting of the lens 
constitute, for any given exposure, a constant product. This fact is 
the basis of the “flash number” system used in the following exposure 
tables. 

We reprint herewith the manufacturers’ official exposure recom¬ 
mendations for Wabash and General Electric flash bulbs. These 
tables are as nearly accurate as careful checking and experimentation 
can make them, but it must be remembered that they should be 
taken as guides, not as gospel. 

Under some conditions, less cumbersome methods for determin¬ 
ing exposure may be used. I shall refer to these in later chapters. 

General Electric Exposure Data. 

Table III 

TUNGSTEN FILM SPEEDS 

For Use in Determining Exposure ivitli G-E Mazda Photo flash Lamps 

Film characteristics are subject to con¬ 
stant improvement, for which new film 
speed ratings are required. Always inquire 
for the latest G-E or Weston ratings when 
using a film for the first time. Because the 
standards for correct exposure with color 
film are different than for black and white 
films, consult the manufacturer’s data for 
recommendations. 

The following are official film speed rat¬ 
ings published by agreement with the Wes¬ 
ton Electrical Instrument Corporation and 
the Film Testing Laboratory of the General 
Electric Co. 

W=Weston G-E=General Electric 


ROLLS AND PACKS 


AGFA 

W G-E 

Superpan Press . 64 100 

Superpan Supreme. 32 48 

Finopan . 16 24 

Super Plenachrome . 32 32 

Plenachrome . 16 24 

Standard . 8 12 

EASTMAN 

Super XX . 64 100 

Panatomic X . 16 24 

Verichrome . 32 24 

N. C. .. 4 12 


44 












GEVAERT 

Panchromosa .. 16 

Express Superchrome . 8 


MINIATURE CAMERA 


FILMS 

AGFA 

W 

Ultra Speed Pan . 64 

Superpan Supreme . 32 

Finopan . 16T 

F. G. Rev. Superpan . 16 

F. G. Plenachrome . 16 

Minipan . 5 

DU PONT 

Superior 1 . 16 

Superior 2 . 32 

Superior 3 .,. 64 

EASTMAN 

Super XX . 64 

Plus X . 32 

Panatomic X . 16 

Microfile . 2.5 

GEVAERT 

Express Superchrome . 16 

Panchromosa . 8 

Panchromosa Micrograph . 8 

PERUTZ 

Peromnia . 8 

Neo Perseno . 4 

Perpantic . 8 

Pergrano . 4 

PORTRAIT 


AND COMMERCIAL 


Superpan Press . 

Isopan . 32 

S. S. Panchromatic . 32T 

Superpan Portrait . 32 

S. S. Plenachrome. 16 

Commercial Pan... 16 

Portrait . 8 

Commercial Ortho . 8 

Commercial . 4 

DEFENDER 

Arrow Pan . 64 

X. F. Panchromatic . 32 

X. F. Orthochromatic . 16 

Portrait H. G. S. 16 

Pentagon . 16 

F. G. Panchromatic . 16 

Portrait . 8 

Commercial . 4 

Seed 27 Plate. 8 


Seed L. Ortho Plate. 8 12 

Seed 26 X Plate. 8 12 

Seed L. NH Plate . 8 12 

Stanley Reg. Plate . 8 12 

Stanley Ex. Imp. Plate . 8 12 

Standard Orthonon Plate . 8 12 

Seed 23 Plate. 2 3 

EASTMAN 

Tri-X Panchromatic.64 200 

Ortho-X . 64 64 

Super XX . 32 64 

Panatomic X . 16 24 

S. S. Ortho Portrait . 16 32 

S. S. Panchromatic. 32 48 

Portrait Pan. 16 48 

Commercial Pan . 16 24 

Par Speed Portrait . 8 16 

Commercial Ortho . 8 12 

Commercial . 4 8 

Polychrome Plate. 8 12 

W. & W. Tricolor Plate. 32 48 

50 Plate . 16 16 

40 Plate . 8 12 

D. C. Ortho Plate .. 8 12 

S. C. Ortho Plate . 8 12 

33 Plate . 4 6 

Universal Plate . 8 12 

W. & W. Pan Plate. 8 12 

Post Card Plate. 4 6 

Commercial Plate . 4 8 

W. & W. M. Plate. 8 12 

W. & W. Metallographic Plate.. 4 6 

GEVAERT 

Studio High Speed.. 16 24 

Superchrome . 8 12 

Ultra Panchro Studio . 8 12 

Ortho Commercial . 8 12 

Commercial . 4 6 

Ultra Panchro Plate . 16 24 

Sensima Ortho Plate . 4 6 

Super Chromosa Plate . 4 6 

HAMMER 

Tru-Tone Pan . 8 12 

Portrait Ortho . 4 6 

Commercial Pan . 8 12 

Med. Comm. Ortho Slow. 2 3 

Slow Ortho. 1 1.5 

Med. Commercial. 2 

Slow . 1 

Special Plates . 8 12 

SS Ortho Plate . 12 

Commercial Pan Plate . 4 6 

Extra Fast Plate . 4 6 

Med. Commercial Ortho Plate.. 4 6 

Med. Commercial Plate . 2 3 


24 

6 

G-E 

100 

48 

24 

18 

12 

4 

24 

48 

100 

100 

48 

24 

4 

6 

12 

6 

12 

1.5 

6 

3 

G-E 

200 

200 

100 

24 

24 

24 

12 

12 

12 

6 

80 

64 

24 

24 

16 

12 

12 

6 

12 


45 





























































































Soft Gradation Pan Plate. 8T 3 

Slow Plate . 1 1.5 

Slow Ortho Plate . 1 1.5 

PRESS FILMS 

AGFA 


W G-E 


Superpan Press . 64 100 

Super Plenaehrome Press . 32 48 

DEFENDER 

X. F. Pan Press. 32 48 

X. F. Ortho Press . 16 24 

EASTMAN 

Super Panchro Press . 64 100 

Super Ortho Press .32 48 

Panchro Press . 32 48 

Ortho Press Plate . 16 24 

Super Panchro Pr. Plate. 64 100 

GEVAERT 

Ultra Panchro A. H. Pr. 24 16 

Super Pr. A. H. Plate. 16 24 

Super Ortho Press . 9 

HAMMER 

Super Ortho Press . 4 6 


COLOR FILMS 

DEFENDER 

Dupac . 12 16 

Tripac . 3 5 

DUFAYCOLOR 

(*With filter recommended 
hy mfr.) 

Roll Film 


Photo flash* . 3 5 

Cut Film 
Tentative Ratings 
Daylight Type 

Pholoflash* . 3 

Photoflood Type 

Photo flash* . 4 

EASTMAN KODACHROME 
Roll Film 

8, 16, 35 mm. Regular (Filter) 3 4 

8, 16, 35 mm. Type A. 12‘KA’ 16 

Professional Film 
Type B (Filter, except with 
3200°K lamps) . 6‘KB’12 


NOTE 

Use these data as a guide rather than as 
a specific recommendation. A basic expos¬ 
ure of more or less than that indicated may 
give better pictures for individual equip¬ 
ment, method, subject matter and results 
desired. 

BASIS 

All exposure data is based on the use of 
G-E MAZDA Photoflash lamps in good 
metal reflectors—indoors in an average¬ 
sized room with medium-colored walls and 
ceilings—with lamp, camera and subject on 
axis. Outdoors at night, in large or dark- 
walled interiors, use one stop opening larg¬ 
er than the guide indicates or reduce the 
lamp-to-subject distance to three-quarters of 
that indicated. 

Photoflash data for 1/25 to 1/1000 second 
apply to exposures made with a synchroniz¬ 
er. Data for “Time, Bulb” mean that the 
camera shutter is opened, kept open while 
the lamp is flashed, then closed. Data for 
lamps No. 6 and No. 31 is for focal-plane 
curtain shutters only. 

TO FIND EXPOSURE 

Find film speed rating in Table III. 


Locate proper guide number for film speed, 
shutter speed, lamp and reflector, in tables. 


_| FILM SPEED |_ 

Weston ... 4 8 16 34 64 
G-E .... 6 IS 24 48 100 


G-E MAZDA 






PHOTO- c 1 ACU 
Lamp 1 LAOll 

(k^ 

(ka) 




No. 

21 

Time, Bulb, 

1/25, 1/50 

110 

155 

220 

310 

440 

1/100 

85 

120 

170 

240 

340 

'1/200. 1/250 

70 

100 

140 

200 

280 


1/100, 1/500 

50 

70 

100 

140 

200 

No. 

Time, Bulb. 1/25 

175 

250 

350 

500 

700 

50 

1/50 

150 

210 

300 

420 

600 

No. 

31 

1/200, 1/250 

44 

60 

88 

120 

175 

1/400, 1/500 

30 

44 

60 

88 

120 

1/1000 

22 

30 

44 

60 

88 


The above tables for lamps No. 
21, 50, 31 are based on the use of 
large studio reflectors especially 
designed for larger lamps. 

Table IV 


46 






































































j FILM SPEED |_ 


W.ston . 

G-E ... . 

4 

6 

8 

12 

16 

24 

32 

48 

64 

100 

G-E MAZDA 

p l.°Jp‘FLASH 1 

Time, Bulb, 
1/25,1/50 

© 

70 

© 

100 

140 

200 

280 

W. 

A a 

1/100 

55 

78 

110 

155 

220 

11 

1/200, 1/250 

44 

60 

88 

120 

175 

1/400, 1/500 

30 

44 

60 

88 

120 


Time, Bulb, 

1/25, 1/50 

80 

113 

160 

225 

320 

NO. 

A 

1/100 

62 

88 

125 

175 

250 

16A 

1/200, 1/250 

50 

70 

100 

140 

200 

1/400, 1/500 

35 

50 

70 

100 

140 

kl - 

Time, Bulb, 
1/25, 1/50 

85 

120 

170 

240 

340 

No. 

HA 

1/100 

65 

92 

130 

185 

260 

Si 

1/200, 1/250 

55 

75 

110 

150 

220 

1/400, 1/500 

38 

55 

75 

110 

150 

Time, Bulb, 1/25 

135 

190 

270 

380 

540 

50 

1/50 

115 

160 

230 

320 

460 

No. 

1/200, 1/250 

33 

48 

66 

96 

130 

04 - 

1/400, 1/500 

24 

33 

48 

66 

96 

41 

1/1000 

17 

24 

33 

48 

66 


This table is based on the use of average 
reflectors furnished with synchronizers. 

Table V 


_I FILM SPEED |_ 

Weston ... 4 8 16 32 64 
G-E . . . . 6 12 24 48 100 


G-E MAZDA 

■r™FLASH 

Time, Bulb, 
1/25,1/50, 1/100 

!© 

30 

© 

42 

60 

84 

120 

SM 

1/200, 1/250 

24 

34 

48 

68 

96 

1/400, 1/500 

19 

27 

38 

54 

76 

kl _ 

Time, Bulb, 

1/25, 1/50 

70 

100 

140 

200 

280 

NO. 

1/100 

55 

78 

no 

155 

220 

5 

1/200, 1/250 

44 

60 

88 

120 

175 

1/400, 1/500 

30 

44 

60 

88 

120 

1/100 

33 

48 

66 

96 

130 

No. 

1/200, 1/250 

24 

33 

48 

66 

96 

6 

1/400, 1/500 

17 

24 

33 

48 

66 

1/1000 

12 

17 

24 

33 

48 


The above tables for SM, 
No. 5 and No. 6 lamps are 
based on the use of reflec¬ 
tors especially designed 
for midget lamps. 


For example, the guide number for Pho¬ 
toflash lamp No. 11 with shutter set for 
“Time, Bulb, 1/25, 1/50” in an average 
reflector, with a film rated at 64 Weston or 
100 G-E is 220. Divide the guide number 
by the distance in feet from lamp to subject 
to get the recommended F/number. At 10 
feet, 220 divided by 10 gives 22, use F/22; 
at 20 feet, 220/20 = F/ll, etc. 

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 

Success in color photography depends 
largely upon accuracy of exposure. Expos¬ 
ure guide numbers giving best average re¬ 
sults will be found in the tables under the 
mark ‘KA’ for Kodachrome “Type A”— 
‘KB’ for Kodachrome “Type B.” In all 
color processes, an increase or decrease in 
the basic exposure recommended may give 
better results. With Kodachrome transpar¬ 
encies, for example, more exposure gives a 
lighter result, less exposure a darker result. 
(See procedure for working out individual 
guide numbers under “To Find Exposure”) 

Care should be used to expose color film 
to the type of light for which it is balanced 
or to use the proper filter. Printed instruc¬ 
tions will be found in the film package. 

G-E MAZDA Photoflash lamps No. 21B 
have a blue filter coating especially bal¬ 
anced to give correct color rendition with 
“regular” Kodachrome. They are intended 
for use with a synchronizer, to illuminate 
near shadows and dark foregrounds when 
the rest of the scene is in daylight. 

They may be used as the sole source of 
illumination with “daylight” color films. 
Other combinations of regular photoflash 
lamps with the proper color film may be 
more desirable insofar as lamp cost and 
exposure is concerned—for pictures where 
artificial light and daylight are not mixed. 


GUIDE NUMBERS FOR G-E MAZDA 
PHOTOFLASH LAMPS No. 21B 

(In average reflector furnished with synchronizers) 




Regular Daylight Kodachrome 

No. SIB 


Roll Film 

Professional 

Film 

One 

Time, Bulb 
1/25, 1/50 

40 

35 

Lamp 

1/100 

31 

27 

1/200,1/250 

20 

17 

Two 

Time, Bulb 

1/25, 1/50 

56 

45 

Lamps 

1/100 

45 

35 

1/200, 1/250 

28 

22 


Table VI Table VII 


47 


































































































































\ 


Wabash Exposure Data. 

A simplified method to determine correct 
exposure data has been adopted for use 
with Wabash Superflash Photolamps. This 
new method known as the “Flash Number” 
method is much easier to use, for all you 
have to remember is your Flash Number at 
the speed you regularly use to get your f 
stop at any distance. Simply do these three 
things: 

1. Check your film against Table VIII to 
find A, B or C film speed. 

2. Refer to Table IX on Superflash size 
to get your Flash Number at shutter speed 
you use. 

3. Divide the Flash Number by the dis¬ 
tance in feet from lamp to subject to get the 
f stop. 

Example: Supposing you use Agfa Super¬ 
pan Supreme or Eastman Plus X with 
Superflash Press 40 and want to shoot at 
l/100th of a second at a subject 10 feet 
away. Checking the film list, Table "\ III, 
you find these films are B films. Checking 
the Press 40 table at l/100th of a second 
you find your Flash Number is 160. Divid¬ 
ing 160 by 10 (distance in feet) your lens 
opening is f/16. 

Table VIII 

FILM A, Weston Tungsten Rating 64 

Agfa Superpan Press 
Agfa Triple “S” Pan 
Agfa Ultra Speed Panchromatic 
Defender Arrow Pan Press 
DuPont Superior 3 
Eastman Ortho X 
Eastman Super Panchro Press 
Eastman Super XX Pan (roll, pack & 35 
mm.) 

Eastman Tri X Panchromatic 

FILM B, Weston Tungsten Rating 32 

Agfa Isopan 

Agfa Superpan Portrait 

Agfa Superpan Supreme 

Agfa Super Plenachrome 

Agfa Super Plenachrome Press 

Agfa Supersensitive Panchromatic 

Defender XF Panchromatic 

DuPont Superior 2 

Eastman Panchro Press 

Eastman Plus X Pan 

Eastman Super Ortho Press 

Eastman Supersensitive Panchromatic 


Eastman Super XX Pan (cut film only) 
Eastman Verichrome 
Gevaert Panchromosa 
Gevaert Ultra Panchro Press 

FILM C, Weston Tungsten Rating 16 

Agfa Commercial Panchromatic 
Agfa Fine Grain Plenachrome 
Agfa Finopan 
Agfa Plenachrome 
Agfa Superpan Reversible 
Agfa Supersensitive Plenachrome 
Defender Fine Grain Pan 
Defender Pentagon 
Defender Portrait H.G.S. 

Defender XF Orthochromatic 
Defender XF Ortho Press 
DuPont Superior 1 
Eastman Commercial Pan 
Eastman Panatomic (Bantam) 

Eastman Panatomic X 
Eastman Portrait Panatomic 
Eastman Super Speed Ortho Port. AH 
Gevaert Express Superchrome 
Gevaert Super Ortho Press 
Gevaert Ultra Panchro Studio 


Table IX 


Superflash 
Bulb Size 

Film 

Speed 

1/50 

Sec. 

1/100 

Sec. 

1/200 

Sec. 


Flash 
. No. 

Flash 

No. 

Flash 

No. 

No. 0 or 

Press 25 
in regular 
type reflector 

Film A 
Film B 
Film C 

#200 

#140 

#100 

#140 
#100 
# 65 

#100 
# 65 

Press 40 or 
Press 25 in 
directed-flash 
reflector 

Film A 
Film B 
Film C 

#340 

#230 

#160 

#230 

#160 

#110 

#160 
#110 
# 80 


Film A 

#380 

#270 

#190 

Press 50 

Film B 

#270 

#190 

#130 


Film C 

#190 

#130 

# 95 


Film A 

#450 

#320 

#230 

No. 2 

Film B 

#320 

#230 

#160 


Film C 

#230 

#160 

#120 


Film A 

#500 

#360 

#260 

No. 3X 

Film B 

#360 

#260 

#180 


Film C 

#260 

#180 

#130 


Film A 

#560 

#400 

#280 

No. 3 

Film B 

#400 

#280 

#200 


Film C 

#280 

#200 

#140 


48 











The exposure data in Table IX is calculated 
for indoor use in rooms with medium col¬ 
ored walls. For outdoor use in total dark¬ 
ness, use the next larger lens opening. 

FOCAL PLANE FLASH USE 

Miniature cameras with the focal plane 
type of shutter require a flash bulb with a 
longer duration of “peak light,” to allow 
ample time for the focal plane shutter to 
slide across the film while the light is at its 
peak. 

Focal plane shutters which travel from 
top to bottom as on the Contax and Conta- 
flex types, can be used successfully with the 
Press 40, Press 50, No. 2 and No. 2A sizes. 

Focal plane shutters which travel across 
the film from left to right, as on the Leica, 
Perfex and Exakta types, require slightly 
longer duration as their focal plane slot 
travels farther and takes somewhat longer 
to cover the entire film. Superflash No. 2A 
is the size recommended for this purpose, 
although the Press 50 and No. 2 will also 
provide satisfactory results. The following 
table is computed for 1/200th of a second 
speed: 


Table X 

Superflash Size 

Film Speed 

Flash No. 


Film A 

#120 

Press 40 

Film B 

# 80 


Film C 

# 65 


Film A 

#130 

Press 50 

Film B 

#100 


Film C 

# 65 


Film A 

#160 

No. 2 

Film B 

#110 


Film C 

# 80 


Film A 

#100 

No. 2A 

Film B 

# 65 


Film C 

# 40 


SPEED GRAPHIC—214x314" 

When using the focal plane shutter of the 
miniature 2%x3]4" Speed Graphic, the No. 
2 Superflash size is recommended. The fol¬ 
lowing exposure table is computed for use 
of this size with high speed films in the “A” 
rating: 


Table XT 


Superflash 




No. 2 

1/100 sec. 

1/305 sec. 

1/700 sec. 

10 ft. 

f/14 

f/9.5 

f / 6.3 

15 ft. 

f/9.5 

f/8 

f/5.6 

20 ft. 

f/8 

f / 6.3 

f/4.5 


SPEED GRAPHIC—Up to 4x5" 

The larger focal plane cameras such as 
the Speed Graphic and Graflex cameras in 
the 3 1 / 4x4 1 / 4" or 4x5" sizes, require a flash 
bulb with an extra long “peak light” dura¬ 
tion when the focal plane back shutters are 
used. The No. 2A Superflash size is de¬ 
signed with an extra long “plateau-peak 
light” flash especially for use with these 
larger focal plane shutters. The following 
table is computed for use of the No. 2A 
Superflash with either the 3 1 /4x4 1 / 4" or the 
4x5" size: 


Table XII 


Superflash 


1/1000 

1/860 

1/680 

No. 2A 


sec. 

sec. 

sec. 


Film A 

f/12.5 

f/16 

f/16 

10 ft. 

Film B 

f/9.5 

f/9.5 

f/11 


Film C 

f/6.3 

f/6.3 

f/6.3 


Film A 

f/8 

f/9.5 

f/9.5 

15 ft. 

Film B 

f/5.6 

f/5.6 

f/6.3 


Film C 

f/4.5 

f/4.5 

f/4.5 


Film A 

f/5.6 

f/6.3 

f/6.3 

20 ft. 

Film B 

f/4.5 

f/4.5 

f/5 


Film C 

f/3.5 

f/3.5 

f/3.5 


49 





















Part Two 


Chapter One 

Sentimental Record 

Probably the most sentimentally appealing and photographically 
appalling thing in this world is an album of old snapshots. In these 
records of past years, slightly dog-eared and hypo-stained, blurry, 
out-of-focus and over-exposed, pictorially negligible and technically 
terrible, we find the very essence of the things that we like to remem¬ 
ber about those years. 

The snap shot and its frank, unblushing faults have always been 
considered fair game for wisecracks. But we can’t get along without 
it. Even the most callous of wisecrackers have a few adored atrocities 
pasted in albums or tucked away in pigeon-holes. 

In one form or another, the unpretentious and homely snapshot 
will always persist, (Figure 14) for it fills a great human need. 
Nothing in this world abides, as poets and philosophers have often 
noted, all things change, and the winds of time whistle past our 
ears as we speed upon our way. By means of the snapshot, however, 
we are afforded an opportunity for salvaging a few grains of this 
near and dear present before it slips from our grasp. 

They are mostly humble and familiar things that find their way 
into snapshots: Junior (aged six months) in his bath, Junior (aged 


50 


□ 

Figure 14. 

A press picture, but one 
typifying the best qualities 
of the snapshot — honesty, 
humor and a homely sense 
of the dramatic. 

Data: 4x5 Speed Graphic, 
1/200 second at F:22. One 
Wabash Press-40 slightly to 
left of camera. 





“Hello Santa” Henry McAllister, 

N. Y. Journal-American 


eighteen months) struggling with his oatmeal, Junior (a few years 
later) on his tricycle, Junior starting to school, Junior graduates 
from high school, Junior brings home friends from college. Junior 
and Mrs. Junior on their first anniversary. Junior himself now takes 
up the tale, da capo , with a faithful chronicle of Junior II, inter¬ 
spersed with records of Sunday visits with Grandma and trips to 
the beach. 

The faults of these pictures are just about as familiar and stand¬ 
ardized as their subject matter. Let me ennumerate a few of the 
more outstanding of these. (I leave out of consideration such ele¬ 
mentary errors as double exposures and tilted skylines, which are 
simply carelessness or extreme ineptness.) 

1. Movement. (Junior is restless and moves too suddenly 
for the camera to stop his action.) 


51 






2. Contrasty illumination. (The ancient superstition of the 
snapshot which insisted on putting Junior in the bright¬ 
est sunlight possible. The resulting pictures were all dense 
shadow and intense illumination, with no half-tones in 
between. 

3. Over-exposure. (Light-areas in Junior’s face bleak, white 
without gradation. The almost inevitable running mate 
of contrasty illumination. This condition was encouraged 
by the recommendations offered by the film manufac¬ 
turers, who surmised that the amateur was more inter¬ 
ested in getting an image every time than he was in 
securing photographic quality.) 

4. Under-exposure. (Resulting from efforts to shoot Junior 
indoors or in a subdued light. The negative is thin and 
gutless; the print, gray, murky and depressing.) 

5. Lack of depth of field. (The usual habit of shooting with 
the lens wide open, or nearly so, in order to get as much 
speed as possible, leads to backgrounds that are badly 
fuzzed and out of focus. Or, if Junior is being shot from 
close up, it may present him with his nose sharp and his 
ears fuzzy.) 

6. Bad expression. (Junior looks into the sun and squints. 
Or he gets self-conscious at all the preparations and puts 
on a silly expression. Or he gets tired of being pushed 
around by a camera and simply sulks.) 

7. Bad backgrounds. (Preoccupation with getting the sub¬ 
ject in good light leads to disregard of background and 
to consequent confused or irrelevant backgrounds.) So 
the sentimentally precious record is often presented in a 
setting of ash cans or of those illuminated blobs that we 
have elsewhere designated as “gall stones.”* 

Now, these intimate record shots that mean so much to us for 
personal and sentimental reasons are deserving of far better photo¬ 
graphic treatment than they usually receive. In the book Outdoor 
Portraiture I have made a few simple suggestions for improving 

* See Outdoor Portraiture, page 97. 


52 



61 * 

\ 

V> 

Figure 15. 

“ Doggone, What a Life” 

Truman B. Gordon 

First Prize Winner in Kal- 
art Annual Speed Flash 
Contest — 1940. 

Puppies frequently become 
subjects of sentimental rec¬ 
ord, but seldom are they so 
charmingly rendered as in 
this well-known flash pic¬ 
ture. 

Data: Super Ikonta B with 
Kalart synchronizer, 1/100 
second at F :16 on Pana¬ 
tomic X. Two Wabash 
Press-40’s placed as shown 
in diagram. 



the quality of informal record pictures. Among these suggestions 
were the following: 

1. Use fast films. Modern fast emulsions are better able to 
stop action and to secure more spontaneous expression. 
Under ordinary light conditions it is possible with these 
films to use smaller apertures and secure greater depth 
of field. Speedier emulsions also make feasible record 
shots with subdued light. 

2. Give thought to backgrounds. Whenever possible, get your 
subject against a plain wall or fence, thus avoiding the 
customary out-of-focus confusion. A high or low camera 
angle helps in eliminating undesirable backgrounds. 

3. Protect your exposure. Whenever possible, take several 
exposures of the same set-up, shooting both above and 
below the presumed “correct” exposure. At first sight, 
this may appear an expensive proceeding, but it actually 


53 



pays off in the long run with a higher percentage of 
really good exposures. 

4. Shoot only when the light is good. Avoid the midday 
hours for outdoor photography. The light is much better 
when the sun is low. Take advantage of times when the 
sun is veiled in light clouds or fog. 

5. Take advantage of reflecting surfaces. Contrasty illumi¬ 
nations are relieved by reflected light thrown into the 
shadow areas. In making record shots, it is seldom pos¬ 
sible or desirable to set up a reflector, but natural reflect¬ 
ing surfaces are often available: a stretch of sand or 
water, a concrete walk, a stuccoed wall, or the side of a 
house. 

These points are all sound advice, and decent observance of them 
is certain to improve the photographic average of those pictures that 
you take, not to try out new gadgets, or in the hope of crashing the 
salon, but simply because the subject matter itself is of sentimental 
concern to you. But there are still some situations that these bits of 
wisdom fail to meet. The episodes that you want to perpetuate don’t 
always take place when the light is of good quality, or where the 
backgrounds are beyond cavil, or where there are reflecting surfaces 
to take advantage of. Indeed, many of the most intimately precious 
moments seem to be stubbornly opposed to everything that makes 
good photographic quality. 

For these situations the flash bulb is a great help to the amateur. 
Many problems that were extremely difficult photographically are 
rendered relatively simple by its use. (Figure 16.) 

It is in the making of sentimental record shots that the problems 
of photography first cross the path of the average citizen. Practi¬ 
cally all photographers, amateur or professional, have cut their 
photographic teeth in the making of “snapshots.” So it seems logical 
that in this humble and familiar field we should first consider the 
practical problems of flash photography. The basic principles in¬ 
volved are the same, no matter whether you are taking a picture of 
Junior in his hath or of the “B-19.”* 

* It is quite significant, I think, that the best baby pictures in this book are by Lawrence Kron- 
quist, the same man who took the magnificent pictures of the B-19. 


54 




“Box Supper ” Marion Post-Walcott (F.S.A.) 

Figure 16. This F.S.A. shot from Breathitt County, Kentucky , typifies the genuine 
spontaneity made possible in record pictures by the use of the flash. 


Basic Equipment . 

The equipment used for these purposes should be as simple as 
possible. Conditions commonly afford no opportunity for rigging 
long extensions or for calculating multiple-flash exposures. Nor are 
these more complicated set-ups the best way to learn about flash. 
It must be remembered that we are considering this application of 
flash to domestic photography in the light of what it usually is: an 
elementary course in flash photography. 

This, then, is the equipment that we assume for most of the work 
considered in this chapter: 

1. Camera, of course. If you intend to limit yourself at first 
to the “open and shut” type of flash, any sort of camera 
will serve. But it is better to have one with a lens capable 
of closing down to F :22, and with a shutter speed at least 
as high as 1/200. Any size, from miniature on up. 


55 











2. A synchronizer, either mechanical or electric. It is better 
that it be able to deal with speeds as high as 1/200. It 
should be a sound piece of machinery and proved to be 
“in sink” before you start. Nothing is a more futile piece 
of apparatus than a synchronizer “out of sink.” It is 
preferable that the synchronizer be so rigged that the 
lamp can be unhooked and held at arms length from the 
camera. It should be able to handle both miniature and 
standard-base lamps. 

3. Two reflectors, one of the regular type and the other of 
the special type designed for the miniature bulbs. 

Things to Remember. 

Most articles and books on flash (and this one is no exception) 
give the impression that one has to be a walking exposure table and 
a peripatetic lexicon of curious scientific lore in order to take a good 
flash picture. A little knowledge of what you are doing does no 
harm, of course, but the things that one needs to bear in mind at 
first can be boiled down into a fairly compact compass. 

1. Use the smallest bulb possible for a given job. Small 
bulbs cost less and give better results. A harsh glare of 
light is a sign of bad photography and too big a bulb. 
Use the efficient midget bulb whenever possible. For 
close up work, use a flat reflector, rather than the hot, 
“rifle beam” type. Resort freely to diffusion to take the 
edge off your light. (I will have more to say about diffu¬ 
sion a little later.) 

2. Bear in mind the limitations imposed by the law of “in¬ 
verse squares.” This is a very hard-boiled law: it states 
that at twice the distance from the light source you get 
only one quarter as much light, and at four times the 
distance, you get only one sixteenth as much light, and 
there is nothing you can do about it. This means that 
working at close range, you must be exact in your dis¬ 
tances. Measure them with a tape line, don’t guess. If 
you guess that your lamp is six feet from your subject, 
and it turns out to be five, you will probably over-expose; 


56 



“Dirty Dishes ” Lee (F.S.A.) 

Figure 17. Even such a humble bit of domestic still life as this may lend itself to 
sentimental record. This picture looks like the aftermath of Figure 16, but these dishes 

got dirty in Oklahoma. 

for at five feet you get nearly fifty-per-cent more light 
than you do at six. 

3. Camera adjustments for flash are made largely by altera¬ 
tions of the F: setting—opening up or closing down the 
diaphragm. In ordinary photographic practice, it is cus¬ 
tomary to work from a safe base F: setting, altering the 
exposure to conform to different light conditions. But 
under the special circumstances of flash photography, it 
is found more convenient to work from a base exposure 
and to meet light changes by alteration of the diaphragm 
setting. 

4. F: number and lamp distance vary inversely. For a given 
size of lamp and a given exposure, the distance and the 
F: number form a constant product. This convenient fact 
is the basis of the “flash numbers” in the Wabash and 


57 






G. E. exposure tables in Part I. The application of the 
“flash numbers” is very simple. If, for a given bulb and 
exposure, the flash number is 180, you would set the 
diaphragm at F:10 for 18 feet, at F:18 for 10 feet, and 
at F :30 for 6 feet. Simply divide the flash number by 
the lamp distance and the result is the proper F: setting. 

5. When in doubt, don’t guess. Figure it out from the ex¬ 
posure tables. Luck plays a much larger part in photog¬ 
raphy than is generally recognized, but it can’t be de¬ 
pended on to help the dubious amateur about to pop his 
first flash bulb. 

Uses of Diffusion and Reflection. 

The light from the flash bulb is stark and abrupt. For certain 
types of subject matter requiring extreme crispness and mechanical 
harshness of rendering, it is an appropriate type of light. But this 
crispness and mechanical quality is utterly at odds to everything 
that we want in a sentimental record. A sleeping child, for example, 
should not be presented in the same cold, impersonal illumination 
in which we might appropriately display a helical gear. For domestic 
record, we want a light that is soft and intimate, that caresses the 
subject rather than blasts it with illumination. (See Figure 18.) 

Fortunately, we have always available two means of controlling 
this sometimes undesirable quality of the flash. These two methods 
are diffusion and reflection. 

Diffusion occurs when the straight beams proceeding from the 
flash and reflector are crossed up by passing through some trans¬ 
lucent medium. The final effect of diffusion is the same as that of 
a reduced illumination proceeding from a much broader source. As 
a result, shadows in the subject have soft edges, instead of the razor- 
sharp, mechanical definition of shadows rendered by the undiffused 
bulb. 

Many different materials can be made to serve as diffusion 
mediums. Two convenient mediums, both readily available, are a 
piece of architect’s tracing paper or a thin silk handkerchief. Either 
of these may easily be clipped over the flash reflector with a rubber 
band. 


58 


“Diana in the Bath” 



Lawrence Kronquist 

(Special photographer for Douglas Aircraft Co.) 

Figure 18. A heavy percentage of the output of 
household photographers is justifiably given over 
to baby pictures. Seldom, however, do they re- 
motely approach the quality of this one. Concern¬ 
ing it, Mr. Kronquist gives the following data: 
“A 40,000 press bulb in a high stand reflector 
(large diffusing type) a peanut bulb on the camera 
( #5) diffused with oiled silk bowl cover to soften 
its spot effect. Exposure 1/100 second, stopped 
way down. A long lens shade helps in cutting 
down the kick back from the tile walls. Negatives 
developed by inspection.” 




Diffusion, of course, reduces the volume of light materially. 
Either of the mediums mentioned above — tracing paper or silk 
handkerchief—would cut the light about in half.* In order to com¬ 
pensate for this reduction in light, it would be necessary to open up 
the lens by one stop. For example, if the indicated exposure and 
“flash number” called for an aperture of F:16, it would he neces¬ 
sary, if the bulb was diffused with tracing paper, to open up to Fill. 

Reflection is the other means of reducing the inherent harshness 
of the flash illumination. Both in Pictorial Lighting and Outdoor 
Portraiture I have mentioned the need of some sort of reflector to 
cope with a contrasty and/or unbalanced light. The reflector serves 
to moderate the unbalance by directing some soft illumination into 
the shadowy side of the subject. 

It is not usually convenient to use a flat white reflector of studio 
type in the sort of photography that we now have under considera¬ 
tion. However, there are almost always other surfaces that can be 
made to serve the same purpose. The commonest of these extempore 
reflectors is a white or light-colored wall. If the subject is seated 
at table, a white table cloth will help to reduce lighting contrast. 
Even an open book is useful along these lines. 

Note in Figure 19 how the subject is arranged to take advantage 
of the reflection from light colored surroundings. 

In circumstances where a wall is not available, a good make-shift 
reflector can be made by a sheet or large white towel hung over the 
back of a chair just out of the camera range. 

If there is a large amount of reflection from the walls, it may 
be necessary to reduce the lens aperture a hit. The exposure tables 
are based on an interior with what are rather vaguely designated as 
“average colored walls.” So, if the room in which you are working 
has extremely light walls, allow for the fact by closing down your 
diaphragm by one half stop (for example, from F:16 to F:18). 
However, if you are using diffusion at the same time, there will he 
an approximate stand-off between the two effects, and you will let 
the diaphragm setting stand as it is. 

Two Types of Lighting. 

There are two sorts of lighting that may be sought for in the 

* For more about the effect of various diffusing mediums, see Chapter Two, page 84. 


60 




Figure 19. 


Surrounding reflective surfaces heighten effect of flash. 


i 


61 
































sentimentally conditioned branch of photography. Both are per¬ 
fectly logical procedures, but they represent somewhat different aims. 

One type of lighting is illumination pure and simple. It exists 
simply to exhibit the subject to the best possible advantage. In the 
best examples of this type of lighting you are really not aware at 
all of the light as such, but only of a very satisfactory presentation 
of the subject. An excellent example of lighting conceived in this 
particular spirit is that in Figure 33. 

This is fundamentally the same as the Basic Light, “lighting for 
the sake of visibility.”* The situation is much the same, a single 
front lighting unit, at or near the camera, a minimum of cast shadow. 
Since the image itself, for its own sake, and not the lighting “effect,” 
is usually the thing with which the amateur is concerned, this pro¬ 
cedure is the logical one for the greater part of sentimental record 
shots. 

The other type of lighting usually involves a hit of simple stage¬ 
craft. An effort is made with this sort of light to introduce or imply 
some natural source of illumination-—a lamp, a fireplace, or a win¬ 
dow. (Note Figure 132.) This treatment is useful when one wishes 
to present, not only the subject, but a hint of the atmosphere of the 
setting in which the subject belongs. 

Lighting of this sort is almost always unbalanced and involves 
the operation of the flash through an extension, either held in the 
hand or, in some cases, actually installed in the fireplace or lamp 
that is the supposed source of the illumination. In such cases, it is 
desirable to plan the set-up so as to take advantage of available 
reflecting surfaces to fill in the shadow areas. Otherwise, your light¬ 
ing will be mechanically harsh and contrasty, lacking any of the 
essential intimate atmosphere. It should be noted that such “lamp¬ 
light” or “firelight” pictures may most advantageously he taken in 
the daytime, with the natural light of the room serving as “fill in” 
for the flash shadows. 

The “Flash Effect .” 

As a technical adjunct to photography, flash must serve as a 
“silent partner,” always useful and always subordinate. When the 

* Pictorial Lighting, Chapter Three. 


62 




Figure 20. Correct arrangement of elements minimizes shadow and takes advantage of 
reflecting wall surfaces. 


flash betrays its presence in a blatant or obvious fashion, it has been 
wrongly used. Obvious symptoms of the flash are just as much out 
of place and just as detrimental to the picture as would he the 
inclusion of lamp standards and trailing cables in a studio portrait. 

Here are some of the obvious symptoms of flash photography. 
Take pains to avoid them. 

1. Too much light. Nothing so immediately betrays the in¬ 
ept use of flash as a blasting glare of light. Various reme¬ 
dies will help cure this defect; use smaller bulbs, put 
your light further away, diffuse your light. 

2. Shadows on background. When subject is close to back¬ 
ground and background is at right angles to axis of cam¬ 
era, there are bound to be unpleasant and sharp silhouette 
shadows. Remedies: keep subject away from background, 
take background at an oblique angle.* (Note set-up in 

* Background shadows may also be killed by an independent unit lighting the background only. 
This procedure involves an additional extension and is discussed in the following chapter. 


63 








“Mr. Fields Looks Over the International Situation” 
by Roman Freulich, Universal Pictures. 


Figure 21. An amusing publicity “gag” picture, but marred by 
conspicuous reflection of flash bulb in window. 


Figure 20, which keeps obvious shadows off the wall and 
at the same time secures advantageous reflection from it.) 

3. Halations. Unless you check beforehand, you may en¬ 
counter mirror-like reflections from such things as glass 
doors or highly polished furniture. This effect, of course, 
very directly betrays the flash by reflecting its image 
right back into the camera. (For an example, see Figure 
21 .) 

4. Smacks and smears of light. This term is employed to 
describe such effects as those shown in Figure 22. Here the 
light, instead of being used for illumination, is smeared, 


64 









Figure 22. 

An unfortunately familiar 
flash effect. Smacks and 
smears of light resulting 
from flash bulbs too close, 
too concentrated, and in 
the wrong places. 



like a luminous salve, on some few small (and usually 
unimportant) areas. The fundamental error in this case 
is a too concentrated source placed too close to the sub¬ 
ject. Remedy: diffuse the light and move it further back. 

5. Illogic. A good many flash pictures betray themselves 
through mere lack of logic and common sense, loo often 
there is no apparent reason for the fanciful aberrations 
of the illumination. Indeed, the lighting is sometimes 
directly opposed to the logical demands of the situation, 
with the stronger illumination on the side opposite the 
the ostensible source. A problem in logic must be han¬ 
dled, for example, in shooting a figure in semi-silhouette 
against a window. This is a situation that is very difficult 
to cope with by conventional photographic means, owing 
to the extreme range of luminosities involved: either the 
detail on the near side of the figure is lost in the shadow, 


65 








“Barnswallow Quintet” Dr. and Mrs. Heathcote Kimball 

Figure 23. Prize Winner in Graflex Golden Anniversary Contest. 

Data: 4x5 Speed Graphic, 1/200 at F: 16, on Agfa Isopan. One 
Wabash 40 as sole illuminant. 


□ 


or else the window is completely blanked out by over¬ 
exposure. The flash offers a way out of this technical 
dilemma. But logic dictates that the flash should he very 
weak in this case—just enough to lift out of the shadow 
about the same amount of detail that the eye sees there. 
(Figure 97.) To set the fully illuminated figure against 
the window is offensive both to logic and good picture¬ 
making. 


The Service of Flash to the Amateur. 

In this last example lies the clue to the outstanding service of 


66 







flash to the amateur: for the first time he is able to get into his 
picture that which his eye sees in the subject. 

We may rage at or condescend to the bungling amateur as we 
will; but the fact is that the fault is not wholly his. He may be 
photographically inexperienced, hut at least he is not utterly devoid 
of manifestations of human intelligence. At least he knows what his 
eye sees. And if the camera isn’t able to deliver what his eye has 
seen, it rather is the fault of the camera for being a less clever and 
accomodating instrument than the eye. 

This failure of photography to deal simultaneously with bright 
illumination and deep shadow on the same terms that the eye does 
is no doubt the principal cause of amateur photographic bungles. 
The flash meets this situation by evening up the range of luminosi¬ 
ties and bringing it within the limits that the camera can handle. 

So, although the use of flash raises the cost per exposure, the 
amateur will probably save money in the long run, for he can be 
much more certain of his results. 


67 


Chapter Two 


Portraiture with Flash 


Portraiture was one of the first problems to which the infant 
medium of photography applied itself. In 1839, according to the 
account, Dr. Draper posed his sister for twenty minutes under the 
noon-day sun and made the first photographic portrait. Unbelievable 
evolution and technical improvement has taken place since that day, 
but portraiture still remains one of the most important phases of pho¬ 
tography. Not all the photographers are taking pictures of the B-19, 
or of John Powers models in Schaperelli gowns, or of the aftermath 
of battle, murder and sudden death. No, a large proportion of them 
are still in their studios up and down the land, turning out portraits 
of people and their babies. And the basic problems of the portrait 
maker are pretty much the same, no matter whether he is grinding 
out “Cabinet Size Photos” in a small town, or creating Personality 
Impressions at a hundred dollars a shot in a Fifth Avenue salon. 

Portraiture is a large subject, and I have no intention of attempt¬ 
ing a complete survey. All that we are concerned with at the moment 
is to look at some of the applications of flash to portrait problems. 

From the beginning, one of the difficult problems of portraiture 
has been that of lighting—of getting the right amount of the right 
kind of light on the right places of the subject. Dr. Draper, in 1839, 


68 



found difficulty in getting enough of any kind of light; so he put 
his subject in direct sunlight for a twenty minute exposure. Later, 
we were able to give attention to the quality of light, and we had 
our studios lighted by soft daylight, filtered and diffused through 
northern skylights. Then artificial lighting came in, bringing added 
pungency. This was a rather delirious period, marked by a burgeon¬ 
ing multiplicity of lighting units of all imaginable sizes, shapes and 
functions. Now we have the flash on our hands, potentially a valu¬ 
able tool, but not an easy one to handle, and readily capable of 
fantastic abuses. 

Flash in Portraiture. 

The application of flash to portrait procedure resolves itself into 
two departments: 

1. Technical problems. 

2. Lighting problems. 

The latter department is far more important and fundamental. 
Flash, if it is to merit mature consideration, must justify itself as 


69 







a lighting medium. Technical details are important only if they 
contribute to this end. There is no merit in calculating the exposure 
for, and synchronously firing, two, twenty, or two hundred flash 
bulbs, unless you can produce thereby a better picture than you 
could with one flash bulb, or with no flash bulbs at all. 

So let it be clearly understood at the beginning that we are 
interested in flash in portraiture, not as a means of amusing the 
amateur, or amazing his friends, hut solely as a means of photo¬ 
graphic lighting. 

Functions of Light in Portraiture . 

Conventional lighting practice suggests the need of three kinds 
of light on a subject: 

1. Illumination. 

2. “Fill-in” to soften or reduce shadows. 

3. “Accent” to put in an emphatic high-light. 

This is the basis of much contemporary portrait lighting, and 
it involves such complex set-ups as Figure 24. This whole procedure 
is based on a faulty notion of negative quality and represents an 
attempt to produce a good negative by main force rather than by a 
good exposure. 

Under many circumstances, a single light source for the subject 
is all that is required. (Figures 25 and 26.) With correct exposure, 
a single front light, for “illumination” only, will produce excellent 
portraits. Such an arrangement is the principle of the so-called 
“basic light.”* 

With a less balanced lighting, there is need for a secondary 
source of illumination to fill in the shadow areas. I have advocated 
the use of a reflector for this purpose, placed on the shadow side 
of the subject.** 

But the use of a secondary light source (much weaker or further 
away than the principal source) is entirely justifiable, and may 
prove more convenient under some conditions. 

However, there is never any shadow of excuse, in normal por¬ 
traiture, for the use of the “accent light” (or “boom light,” or “‘pep 

* Pistorial Lighting, Chapter Three. 

** Pictorial Lighting, page 55. 


70 





Figure 25. Rightly used, a light from a single source provides all 
the “accent ” you need. Illumination by one small flash bulb, dif¬ 
fused. 


71 




light,” or “wham light,” or whatever you want to call it). Correctly 
exposed and lighted, a face will furnish its own proper accent high¬ 
lights without recourse to such devices. A “boom light” is simply 
an effort to violently blast high-lights into a negative in which the 
legitimate high-lights have all been destroyed by over-exposure. 

There is a fourth weird use to which light on the subject is 
sometimes put. This use has even less justification than the “accent 
light.” 

4. The “back light,” to relieve the head from the back¬ 
ground. 

A fairly typical example of this practice is shown in Figure 27. 
This sort of lighting inspires any reasonably-minded person with 
the desire to walk around behind where the light is better and see 
what the subject really looks like. Such an effect goes against all 
common-sense procedure, which dictates that the most light should 
be put where the most interest lies. Figure 27 alleges, in effect, that 
there is nothing worthy of note in the subject except her left ear, 
a tuft of hair, and a bit of her cheek-bone. 

Why Lighting Anyway? 

The lighting procedure outlined in this chapter is based in gen¬ 
eral on the thesis laid down in Pictorial Lighting *: that lighting in 
portraiture should serve only to reveal the subject , not to exhibit 
the cleverness of the photographer or the wonders of his lighting 
equipment. Lighting “effects” are important in landscape, hut have 
no part in portraiture. The best lighted portraits are those in which 
we are least aware of any “lighting” as such. 

Therefore, attention will be concentrated in this chapter on 
those flash set-ups that most closely approximate the Basic Light and 
its immediate derivatives, the Modified Basic, the Contour, and the 
Semi-Silhouette Lights.* No mention is made of the Plastic or Dy¬ 
namic types, since these are rarely adapted to portrait use. These 
latter are primarily pictorial in their application, and while they 
may be duplicated in flash set-ups, it is more reasonable and con- 

* Pictorial Lighting by William Mortensen. Camera Craft, 1935. $2.00. 


72 




Figure 26. Prize winner in Gruflex Golden Anniversary Contest. A fine example of 

portraiture with a single flash. 


73 






venient to use conventional lighting equipment for outright pictorial 
work in the studio. 

Why Flash for Portraiture? 

The skeptical reader may well at this point (if not sooner) raise 
the question of why one should use flash with portraiture when 
conventional lighting equipment is perfectly capable of doing the 
job, and at rather less expense per exposure. This is a thoroughly 
justified question, and one that should be answered before going 
further. 

The answer to the question will be more readily appreciated if 
we consider it in the light of some of the notorious short-comings of 
studio portraiture. 

Standard Faults of Studio Portraiture. 

All of us who have ever patronized a portrait photographer, no 
matter whether we went for the Cabinet Size or the De Luxe job, 
have probably become aware of certain standard shortcomings in 
his work. The errors are actually almost as common in high priced 
work as in the cheaper variety; but we are not so apt to notice them, 
for the simple reason that we are far more prone to criticize some¬ 
thing for which we paid $2.50 than something that cost us a hundred 
dollars. 

And if we have happened to be the photographer instead of his 
victim, we have also been very much aware of these faults, although, 
for reasons of professional policy, we haven’t called attention to 
them. 

Under average operating conditions, studio portraiture is fairly 
sure to betray at least some of the undesirable characteristics listed 
herewith. (Figures 28 and 29 are reasonable facsimiles of portraits 
embodying these faults.) 

1. Lack of depth of field. (Nose in focus, ears out of focus; 
or vice versa.) 

2. Lack of normal expression. (The sense of being under 
a spotlight is bound to make an unaccustomed sitter self- 
conscious. Cumbersome equipment and too much fussing 
with it increases his apprehension. All these emotional 


74 



Figure 27. “ Backlighting” consists of put¬ 
ting the most light in the worst places. 


Figure 28. Faults of conventional studio 
portraiture—the squint. 


states are sure to be reflected in his expression, no matter 
how “pleasant” he tries to look.) 

3. Discomfort from heat and glare. (By actual test, the heat 
under the conventional lighting equipment may go as 
high as 100°F. or 110°F. This excessive heat not only 
damages make-up, but the sitter’s temper and morale as 
well. The brightness of the lights so close at hand fre¬ 
quently leads to squints, incipient or overt. (Figure 28.) 
Even if no squint is apparent, the eye protects itself by 
closing down the iris to a mere pin-point, giving a hard, 
pinched expression to the eye.) 

4. Movement. (Particular difficulty is encountered in deal¬ 
ing with wriggly subjects—small children and pets. (See 
Figure 29.) Usually no amount of cajoling with the tra¬ 
ditional birdie will make them hold still, so the photog¬ 
rapher desperately attempts to catch them on the fly, 
with much waste of film and energy. And sometimes an 
animal subject will flatly refuse to face the light.) 

Here are four portrait faults, readily recognized as typical. No 


75 












Figure 29. 

Faults of conventional studio portraiture 
—movement due to prolonged exposure. 

doubt we could dig out a few more if we tried, but these are ample 
to illustrate our point. 

Note that all these faults, typical of studio portraiture, are 
readily traceable to lighting. Lack of depth of field is due to lack 
of speed induced by lack of light, which the photographer tries to 
compensate for by opening up the diaphragm. And if he tries to 
gain speed by increasing the brightness or number of bis lights, or 
by moving them closer in, he immediately evokes a variety of pained 
and tortured expressions. And if, on the other hand, he decides 
to sacrifice speed to depth of field by closing down his diaphragm 
and increasing his exposure, he thereby runs the hazard of getting 
movement in his picture. The whole set-up is a vicious circle, with 
the photographer trapped inside of it. 

If he tries to side-step the problem by shifting to super-speed 
film, he again runs into difficulty, for high-speed emulsions are in¬ 
capable of yielding the delicate half-tone quality that is required in 
good portraiture. Indeed, compared with the loss in quality, the 
gain in speed is negligible. 

Flash to the Rescue. 

In this situation, flash may be of genuine help. Nearly all of 



76 









Figure 30. Kittens are unperturbed when flash goes off. 


the faults listed above are automatically eliminated by the fact that 
the flash provides a volume of light that, with a normal studio set-up, 
makes it possible to shoot a portrait in 1/200 second at F:16-F:32, 
instead of 1/5 at F :8. 

Let us list some of the likely improvements in portraiture with 
the use of flash. 

1. Normal quality of expression. (In shooting at 1/200 of 
a second, it is possible to wait until the expression is just 
right. There is no possibility that the subject will freeze 
up on you when exhorted to “hold it.”) 

2. Depth of field. (The volume of light furnished by the 
flash makes it possible to operate at a reduced aperture 
otherwise impracticable in the studio.) 

3. Lack of movement. (Working at the high speed possible 
with the flash, the photographer may let his child or 
animal subjects wriggle to their hearts’ content. With the 
absence of duress in posing, expressions are almost uni- 


77 



Figure 31. 

“A nnie” 

Portraiture with single 
flash, diffused. 


formly better. Solved also is the problem of making the 
animals face the light. The kittens in Figure 30 would 
have balked at a floodlight placed near them, hut they 
barely blinked their eyes* when the flash bulb went off.) 

4. Open eye and iris. An outstanding characteristic of flash 
portraiture is the open, candid expression of the eye. The 
dark pupil, normally open, or possibly a little dilated 
(if the work light in the studio is subdued), gives added 
brilliance. 

5. No distress or distraction. (The use of flash puts the sub¬ 
ject to about the least possible distress that is photographi¬ 
cally feasible. He is not burnt to a crisp by high powered 

* This is perhaps as good a place as any to mention that blinking of the eyes at a flash never 
shows in the picture. This reflex action always occurs, but thanks to our own faulty “synchronization,” 
it does not take place until about 1/16 of a second too late. So, even with “open and shut” flash, 
there is no likelihood of catching the eye reaction in the picture. So momentary is the illumination 
of the flash, that subjects such as babies and animals, which are often severely frightened by ordinary 
lighting units, are in many cases not even aware of the firing of the bulb. At most, they lift an 
eyebrows 


78 










Mazdas, nor is he made to feel like some quaint protozoon 
on a slide. If “pilot lights” are used, as suggested later 
in this chapter, they are turned off in ample time for 
the subject to regain his equanimity.) 

Figures 31, 32 and 33 are examples of portraiture with flash. 
They demonstrate the advantages just enumerated. 

It will no doubt he pointed out that shooting two or three flash 
bulbs with each exposure is expensive business for the photographer 
on a budget. The cost per exposure is higher, of course, but most 
operators will find that fewer exposures are required. With flash 
you can afford to wait until just the right moment arrives, instead 
of distractedly popping off a whole series of exposures, hoping to 
God you will get it in one of them. 

Multiple Flash. 

As will be seen in Figures 34 and 35, most of the set-ups advo- 


79 









Figure 33. “Basic” type of lighting. One flash on subject, one on 

background. 


80 







81 


cated for portraiture require the use of multi pie-flash —the syn¬ 
chronized firing of two or more flash bulbs. Even the set-up for 
the straight Basic Light, with only a single light source on or near 
the camera, requires an extension to illuminate the background. 

The use of extensions introduces a few complications of which 
note should be taken. Since all modern synchronizers have facilities 
for plugging in extensions, no reference need be made to the “hook 
up” except to record that all lamps, together with the electro-mag¬ 
netic synchronizer, are connected “in parallel.” 

The wire for extensions should be of the heaviest gauge that can 
conveniently be used. For extensions of twenty-five feet or less, 
#16 or #18 lamp cord* is generally large enough. Longer exten¬ 
sions, used with several large-sized bulbs, will require heavier wire, 
#14 or #12. 

This limitation on the smallness of the wire is occasioned by 
the fact that added resistance in the line increases the time lag of 
the flash bulb. Too much resistance—due to small gauge wire or 
too long extension—will increase this lag to the point where syn¬ 
chronization is seriously affected. A resistance of one half of an 
ohm (approximately that of twenty-five feet of #18 lamp cord) will 
increase the lag by about 2 milliseconds, not enough to worry about. 
But a line resistance of one ohm (or fifty feet of #18 lamp cord) 
with a large-sized bulb (G. E. 21, for example) may extend the time 
lag by as much as 15 milliseconds, which is enough, at high shutter 
speeds, to completely demoralize synchronization. 

The situation is further complicated by the small inherent re¬ 
sistance in the coil operating the electric type of synchronizer. With 
large external resistances, most of the current is thrown through 
the synchronizer coil, leading to erratic behavior by the flash lamps. 
The mechanical type of synchronizer is thus more accurate, with 
minimum amounts of battery power, than the electro-magnetic type, 
so far as multiple flash hook-ups are concerned.** 

Failure of synchronization when extensions are used may be 
traced to several causes. 

* It is probably unnecessary to note that the smaller the gauge number, the larger the wire. 

** For further data on the effect of line resistance on synchronization, see the article on Operating 
Characteristics of Photoflash Lamps and Synchronizers in The Journal of the Photographic Society 
of America, Volume VI, No. 4, October, 1940. 


82 




background 



Figure 35. “Modified Basic ” type of lighting. One flash (high) 
on subject, one on background. Light-area and background ap¬ 
proximately matching in tone. 


83 









1. Too small wire in extension. 

2. Too long an extension. 

3. Too many or too large lamps. 

4. Depleted batteries. 

5. Faulty contacts (in lamp sockets, in extension plugs, in 
synchronizer itself). 

The Background Light. 

In the set-ups diagrammed in this chapter, it will be noted that 
they all call for an independent unit which illuminates the back¬ 
ground only. 

This unit is an essential part of the lighting system which I have 
outlined in Pictorial Lighting * and which forms the basis for the 
methods suggested in this chapter. Its effect on the illumination of 
the subject is negligible, and it does not need to be allowed for in 
calculating exposure. 

The background itself is a smooth white wall, or a tightly 
stretched sheet, at least six feet behind the subject. 

The Use of Diffusion. 

For close-up indoor shots in which one does not need the full 
potency of the bulb, the flash often gives too violent an illumination 
for the best results. Even with a “fill in ” light, shadows are hard- 
edged, and the general effect is much too harsh for flattering por¬ 
traiture. 

It is therefore frequently advisable to diffuse one or more of the 
light sources. Various mediums may be used for this purpose. Thin 
oiled silk , such as is used for ice-box bowl covers, serves admirably. 
(Note the data in Kronquist’s portrait of Diana, Figure 36.) Archi¬ 
tect’s tracing paper, mounted on a wire frame to be clipped to the 
reflector, is also a good diffuser. A common make-shift diffuser is a 
handkerchief draped over the reflector. 

All these various diffusing mediums, of course, cut down the 
light in varying degrees, and each must be compensated for by a 
corresponding increase in the aperture. An accurate check on the 
effectiveness of any diffusing medium may be made by light meter 

* Pictorial Lighting, by William Mortensen, Camera Craft, 1935. 


84 




(Special photographer for Douglas Aircraft Co.) 


Figure 36. Another superlative baby portrait by Kronquist of 
Douglas, who gives the following details: “Diana Kronquist, 
the model, was too tired to pose any longer, went to sleep on 
the job, and this picture was the happy result. A 40,000 press 
bulb in a big reflector throws a large amount of light, but 
diffused, slightly in back of the subject to give modeling. A 
#5 peanut bulb on the camera reflector used as the fill-in — 
but here is the trick—a clear oiled silk food bowl cover with 
elastic edges, the kind used in electric refrigerators, was 
snapped over the reflector to soften and diffuse the light. This 
soft light helps bring out that delicate baby skin—so different from lighting an airplane 
or news shot — 1/50 second — 5 % inch lens—same outfit as used on the B19. Agfa Triple 
S film, a soft high speed film, with Agfa 17, a fine grain soft working developer, was 
used in all these shots (including airplane stuff) to get nicely balanced negatives, 
without contrasty, burnt up highlights. Flash can be controlled as well as any other 
lights and has many advantages: it permits of stopping way down, it stops action when 
needed, and is light and compact for carrying around” 



MIDGfcT 

BULB 


85 











Figure 37. 


Arrangement of flash units for Semi * 
Silhouette lighting used in Figure 37a. 
Characteristic of this lighting is the 
strongly illuminated background, with the 
flesh tones dark against it. 


readings of any light source with and without the diffuser. The 
intensity of the flash will be reduced in the same proportion. The 
meter reading will also indicate the proper re-adjustment of aperture. 

I have found the following data to be substantially correct: 

1. Oiled silk cuts down the light to three-quarters of its 
strength. This necessitates opening up one half stop, 
(e.g., from F:16 to F:12.7). 

2. Tracing paper reduces the light by one half. To compen¬ 
sate, open up diaphragm one full stop, (e.g., from F:16 
to Fill.) 

3. A thick cotton handkerchief cuts down the light to about 
one quarter of its former potency. To compensate, dia¬ 
phragm should be opened two stops, (e.g., from F:16 to 
F:8.) 


Set-ups for a Single Source. 

In Figures 35 and 37 are shown two set-ups for portraiture by 
flash. Both these set-ups involve the use of only a single light 
source for illumination of the subject. 


86 







Figure 37a. Effect of the Semi-Silhouette light as diagrammed in Figure 37. 


87 


Figure 35 shows the arrangement of units for illumination ap¬ 
proximating the effect of the Modified Basic Light. In other words, 
with this set-up, the tone of the light-areas (not the high-lights) of 
the face should be the same as that of the background. 

The distances in Figure 35 are based on a medium complexion. 
For a face paler than average, it will he necessary to pull the front 
unit a little further back. Conversely, for a sun-tan or a dark 
complexion, the front unit must be moved a bit closer. 

In Figure 37 is shown the set-up for the Semi-Silhouette Light. 
This diagram indicates the arrangement of flash units used for Fig¬ 
ure 37a. With this lighting, the face should appear darker than 
the background. As in Figure 35, the set-up may have to undergo 
slight alterations to accomodate specific complexions. 

Set-Ups for Double Source. 

Figures 34, 39 and 40 show set-ups involving the use of two 
sources. 

In these cases, the lighting is somewhat unbalanced and one of 
the lights serves simply as a “fill-in.” The function of the “fill-in” 
is closely analogous to that of the reflector which is commonly used: 
to get additional luminosity into the shadows and to prevent the 
lighting from becoming too unbalanced. 

Generally speaking, the fill-in light should be placed at about 
twice the distance of the main source. Under these conditions the 
fill-in gives one-quarter as much light as the main source (by the 
inverse square rule), which is about the right relationship. 

The two lights should be placed near enough together so that 
there can be a merging of their areas of influence. The effect is very 
bad if the lights are so widely separated that one side of the face is 
illuminated almost exclusively by the main source while the other 
is lighted only by the fill-in. In general, the lights should never be 
placed so that lines drawn from them to the subject makes an angle 
larger than forty-five degrees. 

Exposure with Multiple Flash. 

Determination of correct exposure values with a multiple flash 
set-up, such as that shown in Figure 40, involves complexities not 


88 



Figure 38. Basic type of lighting, verging on Semi-Silhouette quality. 


89 


contemplated in the standard exposure tables reproduced on pages 
44 to 49. Here we have an inter-relation of several lighting sources 
of varying intensities and distances from the subject. 

For coping with this situation there are two suggested procedures. 

One of these is that embodied in a rule of thumb advocated by 
some operators: base your exposure on the principal light source 
only and disregard all the rest. This procedure is permissible when 
a quick spur-of-the-moment calculation must be made, but it can¬ 
not yield the best results. It would be a comforting demonstration 
of mind-over-matter if, by merely disregarding a light source, we 
could prevent it from affecting the negative; but unfortunately it 
does not behave that way. If we “disregard” a light source, we will 
probably turn up with an unbalanced, over-exposed negative. The 
only light sources that may with any justification (and some degree 
of impunity) be disregarded are those which illuminate the back¬ 
ground only, for good exposure is based in the light-area of the 
subject. Different effects may be achieved by deliberate over- or 
under-exposure of the background, but the subject must, of course, 
be correctly exposed under all conditions. 

A much more sensible procedure is to take all the effective light 
sources into consideration. To calculate the combined effect of sev¬ 
eral sources at varying distances and of varying intensities involves 
a little mathematics—but nothing so much as you might imagine. 

The principal point involved in the calculation is the translation 
of all F: values into their Uniform System (U.S.) equivalents. This 
translation is required because exposures and F: values are not 
directly comparable, the exposure series being geometrical and the 
F: series arithmetical in their progression. If you double the F: 
value, for example, you require four times the exposure. The Uni¬ 
form System of aperture marking, however, is designed to be in 
direct simple relation with the corresponding series of exposures. 
(See Table XIII.) If, for example, your subject required 16 seconds 
at U.S. 16, it would require 8 seconds at U.S. 8 and 4 seconds at 
U.S. 4. 

Let us see how this works out with two light sources. Suppose 
we have two equal lights. Either of them (let us say) requires an 
exposure of one-fifth second at U.S. 8. Both of them together, 


90 



Figure 39. Light from tivo sources. 


91 



however, would give twice as much light and, to keep the exposure 
at one-fifth, would require the diaphragm to he closed down to U.S. 
16. Note that 16 equals 8 plus 8. 

The rule, therefore, for multiple light sources is as follows: For 
a given exposure. add together the U.S. aperture settings that would 
be required for each lamp if it were the sole source of illumination; 
the sum is the U.S. aperture value required for all the lamps operat¬ 
ing together. 

For calculating multiple flash, the procedure becomes: 

1. Decide upon your exposure. 

2. At the given exposure, determine from the Tables on 
pages 44 to 49 the correct F: readings for each lamp. 

3. Convert the F: readings into the corresponding U.S. 
values. See Table XIII.) 

4. Take the sum of the U.S. values. 

5. Convert the sum back into its corresponding F: value. 

6. Set your lens at this F: value. 

In terms of the sample set-up shown in Figure 40, the procedure 
is as follows: 

Let us say that you are using “C” type of film, two G.E. No. 5’s 
in special reflectors at 5 feet and 10 feet respectively, and you want 
to shoot at 1/200. On this basis, you look up in Tables IV to VIII 
or IX to XII the flash number for the given lamp-reflector com¬ 
bination. This is found to be 88. You then find the F: reading for 
each lamp. 

88^-10= 8.8 (Call it F:9) 

88 5 = 17.6 (Call it F:18) 

Now refer to Table XIII: 

F:9 =U.S. 5 
F:18 = U.S. 20 
20 + 5 = 25 
U.S. 25 = F:20 

Therefore, F :20 is the correct diaphragm setting for the set-up 
described above. 

The mathematics herein involved is elementary enough but 
nothing that can he dashed off in the heat of a portrait sitting. Any 


92 



Figure 40. Light from two sources. Two G.E. # 5 , 1/200 at F:20. 


93 




photographer who intends to use flash in portraiture will, therefore, 
work on the basis of standardized set-ups arrived at by careful ex¬ 
perimentation. 

An excellent procedure, conducive to economy of time and ma¬ 
terials, is to mark on the floor the position of sitter, camera, and 
lighting units. 

Multiple flash, like single flash, is subject to all the disturbing 
aberrations mentioned in Chapter Four, Part One, viz.: 

1. Variations in film speed. 

2. Irregularities in bulb performance. 

3. Irregularities in synchronizer. 

4. Irregularity in shutter operation. 

5. Uncertainties in reflector efficiency. 

6. Reflecting surfaces surrounding subject. 

7. Nature of subject matter. 

8. Acts of God not otherwise specified.* 

Necessarily, there is no allowance for these variables in exposure 
tables, which are doubtless as accurate as human ingenuity can 
make them. So the portraitist must take these tables and the derived 
values for multiple flash, not as the latest low-down from Sinai, but 
simply as a hand up, a steer in the right direction. Taken simply as 
a general guide, they may be very useful in helping him to arrive 
at his own standardized set-ups. 

The diagrams accompanying Figures 35, 38 and 40 show three 
such set-ups which I have found useful in portraiture with the flash. 

Determination of Exposure by “Pilot Light.” 

A more convenient and flexible method of determining exposure 
for portraiture by flash depends upon the use of an exposure meter 
with “pilot lights.” 


* In justice to manufacturers, I hasten to point out that many of these variables are becoming 
less variable as products are improved. 


94 




Figure 41. The strength of flash illumination makes possible flhe rendition of dark 

garments. 


95 



Table XIII 


Comparative F: and U.S. values. 


F : 

U . S . 

F : 

U . S . 

T2 

.1 

10 

6.5 

1.4 

.13 

11 

8 

1.6 

.16 

12.7 

10 

1.8 

.2 

14 

12.5 

2 

.25 

16 

16 

2.2 

.32 

18 

20 

2.5 

.4 

20 

25 

2.8 

.5 

22 

32 

3.2 

.65 

25 

40 

3.5 

.8 

29 

56 

4 

1 

32 

64 

4.5 

1.3 

36 

80 

5 

1.6 

40 

100 

5.6 

2 

45 

128 

6.3 

2.5 

50 

160 

7 

3 

56 

200 

8 

4 

64 

256 

9 

5 

72 

320 


In absence of table, F: values may be converted to U.S. by the following formula: 
square the F: reading, divide by 16. (E.g., F:8 squared equals 64, which divided by 16 
equals U.S. 4.) To convert from U.S. to F: values: multiply by 16, take the square root. 
(E.g., U.S. 4 times 16 equals 64, the square root of which is F:8.) 


The pilot light system is based upon the use of conventional 
lighting units of known power which, in movie parlance, serve as 
“stand ins” for the flash units. Once the relationship is established 
between the pilot lights and flash units, the exposure for any set-up 
or combination of flash bulbs can be determined by a Weston meter 
without any recourse to the U.S. system, reference to exposure tables, 
or impromptu mathematics with “flash numbers.” 

For pilot lights I use my studio lighting units: two 500 watt T-20 
lamps in “Solite” reflectors. The “Pilot Exposure” values listed 
below in Table XIV are derived from these units. The flash extension 
units may be conveniently clamped to the Solite stands. 


96 


Table XIV 

Weston Pilot Numbers (with 500 watt Solites). 
A. For between-the-lens shutters. 


Actual Exposure 

1/200 

1/100 

1/50 

Wabash #0 

y 2 sec. 

1 sec. 

2 sec. 

Wabash #25 




(regular reflector) 

y 2 sec. 

1 sec. 

2 sec. 

Wabash #25 




(special reflector) 

iy 4 sec. 

2y 2 sec. 

5 sec. 

Wabash #40 

iy 4 sec. 

214 sec. 

5 sec. 

Wabash #2 

2 y 2 sec. 

5 sec. 

10 sec. 

G.E. #5 




(special reflector) 

1 y 2 sec. 

2 y 2 sec. 

4 sec. 

G.E. #21 

2 y 2 sec. 

3 sec. 

6 sec. 

B. For focal plane shutters. 

Actual Exposure 

1/200 

1/400 

1/800 

Wabash #2A 

y 2 sec. 

y 4 sec. 

y 8 sec. 

G.E. #31 

4/5 sec. 

2/5 sec. 

1/5 sec. 


I have chosen the 500 watt Solites as the standard since they 
are common equipment readily obtainable. Any 500 watt T-20 
lamps in eight inch aluminum-painted reflectors should check fairly 
closely. If your two units, placed respectively 5 feet and 10 feet 
from a subject of medium complexion, give a Weston reading of 
13, the Pilot Exposure numbers in Table XIV may be followed ex¬ 
actly. Anyone may, with a little experimentation, work out the Pilot 
Exposure numbers for his own equipment, if they do not correspond 
with those in Table XIV.* 

How to Use Pilot Numbers. 

The procedure with pilot lighting is extremely simple. First, 
place your subject and make your set-up with the 500 watt Solites. 
With them determine your proper lighting angles and balance of 
intensities. If you intend to diffuse one or more of your flash units, 
put diffusers on the corresponding pilot units. For sake of proper 
balance, a 500 watt pilot unit should also be used on the back¬ 
ground. (But note that the background unit does not figure in deter¬ 
mining the exposure.) 

* Appendix A describes the procedure for determining the Pilot Numbers for any type of lighting 
units. 


97 









When you have the pilot units placed and diffused to your satis¬ 
faction, turn off your background units and take your Weston meter 
reading. The meter should be previously set to the proper A, B or 
C speed of film (or according to the Kodachrome rating, if Koda- 
chrome is to be used.) 

Set the arrow on the reading given by the 500 watt pilot lights. 
From Table XIV determine the Pilot Number for the type of flash 
bulb and the actual exposure intended. Opposite the pilot exposure 
number on the meter scale will be found the proper F: setting for 
the given exposure and bulb. 

For example: You intend using two Wabash 25’s in regular re¬ 
flectors, shooting at 1/200. Table XIV gives for this combination a 
Pilot Number of “*4 sec.” You are using “A” film; so you set your 
meter at 64. Let us say that your set-up with two 500 watt Solites 
gives a reading of 6.5. Set the arrow at 6.5. Now look on the circu¬ 
lar scale until you find your Pilot Number, sec.” Opposite, you 
will find F:16, which is the proper diaphragm setting for a corre¬ 
sponding set-up with Wabash 25’s in regular reflectors at 1/200. 

You may find that the indicated F: setting is smaller than your 
camera is capable of. In this case, you have a choice of five alter¬ 
natives : 

1. Diffuse the lights. 

2. Move the lights further back. 

3. Switch to a smaller flash bulb. 

4. Switch to slower film. 

5. Use shorter exposure. 

Or you may resort to any combination of these until you obtain a 
reading compatible with your camera. 

Advantages of the Pilot System. 

For purposes of portraiture by flash, the advantages of the Pilot 
System are almost too numerous to mention. At one step, the meter 
reading automatically takes account of all the variables that make 
the determination of flash exposures into such a prodigiously com¬ 
plicated equation. Let me list some of these variables which the 
pilot system takes care of: 

1. Film speed is taken care of by the meter setting. 


98 



“Secretary Morgenthau” Otto Hagel 

Courtesy, Time, Inc. 

Figure 42. Contemporary magazine illustration provides excellent examples of flash 

portraiture. 


99 






2. There is no need to measure lamp distances. 

3. There is no hasty mathematics with flash numbers. 

4. Diffusion of the sources is automatically compensated for. 

5. So also is reflection from surrounding surfaces. 

6. So also is the light or dark complexion of the subject. 

In addition to all these is the outstanding advantage of being 
able to see beforehand just what kind of lighting your set-up is going 
to yield. 

There is only one limitation to the use of the pilot system: All 
flash bulbs used in a given set-up must be of the same size. That is, 
with the pilot system, you could not accurately determine the proper 
F: setting if you were going to use simultaneously one G.E. #5 and 
one Wabash #2. If it were for any reason necessary to use such a 
combination, you would need to follow the method described earlier 
in this chapter: use of “flash numbers” and conversion of F: values 
into the Uniform System. 


Chapter Three 


Sun-plus-Flash 


It seems fantastic, at first glance, to talk of bringing artificial 
light into collaboration with the sun. But actually such is the 
amazing power of flash bulbs that they can work with the sun on 
quite even terms. Indeed, if you care to force the issue, flash bulbs 
can, within their limited radius, make the sun itself play second 
fiddle and perform the menial function of a fill-in light. (Such 
effects as the last, however, as we shall see, are seldom pleasant.) 

The act of combining the illumination of the sun with that of 
a synchronized flash-bulb was some years ago marked with the 
handy label of “synchro-sunlight photography” (a phrase coined, 
I believe, by Kalart). We will use the same convenient term in this 
chapter. 

The Dilemma of Outdoor Photography. 

Synchro-sunlight offers a partial solution at least, to the common 
dilemma encountered in outdoor photography. In sunlight there is 
frequently a longer range of contrasts than the photographic medium 
is able to cope with. If, in such a case, the exposure is based on the 
light area of the subject (a procedure generally preferable in pic¬ 
torial photography), the shadow areas are left pitch black and empty 
of detail. And if the exposure is based on the shadow areas (form- 


101 


erly a standard procedure), the light areas are hopelessly over¬ 
exposed and deprived of all gradation. And if, in final desperation, 
you try to expose somewhere in between, you turn up with both 
your light area and your shadows in very bad shape. 

In this unpleasant predicament, the standard remedy was the 
use of the #3 type of negative.* This is a compromise negative, 
exposed for the shadow area, but plucked from the developer before 
the light-areas block up. The product thus obtained is printable, but 
deficient in photographic quality; for, although plucking from the 
developer may keep the light areas from becoming unprintably 
opaque, it cannot restore the half-tones that have already been 
destroyed by over-exposure. 

Much to be preferred for pictorial uses is the 7D negative,** 
a negative exposed for the light area of the subject (where the most 
interesting half tones lie) and fully developed (in order to get 
adequate drawing in the shadows). The 7D negative, however, has 
been impossible to use with a contrasty light, and for much outdoor 
photography it has been found necessary to fall back on the un¬ 
satisfactory make-shift of Negative #3. 

Only under certain restricted conditions has it been possible to 
use the 7D procedure for negatives shot outdoors. Here are some 
of the conditions that make its use feasible: 

1. Low sun veiled with clouds. 

2. High fog or thin clouds covering most of sky. 

3. Ample reflection from large areas. 

a. White wall or side of building. 

b. Sidewalk. 

c. Beach. 

d. Body of water. 

e. Large cumulus clouds in quarter of sky opposite to 
sun. 

f. Artificial reflectors.*** 


* This is the terminology employed in the writer’s book, Mortensen on the Negative, Simon & 
Schuster, 1940. 


** See Mortensen on the Negative, page 167. 

*** For fuller detail on outdoor lighting, see Outdoor Portraiture, Camera Craft, 1940. 


102 




“Sea Breeze” 


William Mortensen 


Single flash bulb fills in shadows (in 1:8 illumination), catches detail in drape, stops 
action, and slightly darkens sky. 


In the absence of such conditions, as we have said, the 7D negative 
cannot he used. And, very often indeed, these mitigating circum¬ 
stances are lacking. 

The device of synchro-sunlight, however, enables one to use the 
7D negative under practically all lighting conditions. It is no longer 
necessary to depend upon reflecting elements or diffusion by clouds 
to reduce the natural contrast of sunlight. By means of synchronized 
flash bulbs it is possible to throw enough light into the shadow 
area to diminish the range of contrast into something that the 
photographic medium can handle. 

The basic idea of synchro-sunlight is readily understood; hut 
its proper use is not easily accomplished. Very definitely you must 
know just why you use it, when to use it, and how to use it. Merely 
popping a flash bulb in an outdoor setting does not constitute syn¬ 
chro-sunlight photography. Far worse than an outdoor shot with 
black shadows and blasted highlights (for this at least has a certain 


103 






honesty) is a picture in which the sun-plus-flash procedure is ineptly 
used. 

In this chapter we will consider some of the more reasonable 
and pictorially defensible applications of synchro-sunlight and also 
point out some of its more appalling abuses. 

Equipment. 

But before we talk about synchro-sunlight procedure, let us 
briefly consider the equipment needed. 

1. Camera should have shutter speeds as high as 1/200 and 
be capable of being stopped down as far as F :22. 

2. A lens shade should be used for all outdoor photography. 

3. Use of tripod is advisable, since this leaves the photog¬ 
rapher free to move about and operate bulb from desired 
distance. 

4. Synchronizer should be rigged with a ten foot extension 
so that battery case and reflector can be carried about 
and camera operated at a distance. 

5. A diffuser of some sort is required—any of the types 
mentioned in the preceding chapter. 

6. A supply of bulbs of three different sizes is needed. G.E. 
#5, #16A and #21 make a good assortment. So also do 
Wabash #25, #40 and #2. 

7. Two reflectors , one regular, one rifle beam type. 

8. A good exposure meter is an almost absolute necessity 
under these conditions. 

Light and Shadow. 

Compare the two examples shown in Figures 44 and 45. The 
intensity of sunlight on both is identical—Weston 400. Yet the two 
pictures are entirely different in effect: Figure 44 has unpleasantly 
dense shadows, while Figure 45 shows fine gradation in the face. 
The origin of the difference between the two is, of course, that 
Figure 44 was taken out in the open, while Figure 45 was taken 
close to a white wall which threw a strong reflection into the shadow 
areas. 

The difference in the shadow reading tells the tale. In Figure 


104 




Williarn Mortensen 



Figure 43. 
at 16 feet. 


The S:L ratio was 100:800. Fill-in with one Wabash “25” 
Bulb should have been slightly closer, as contrast remains 
a little too great. 


105 


















Figure 44. Weston reading of 400 in light- Figure 45. Light area same as Figure 44. 

area, 50 in shadows. Shadows boosted to 200 by reflection from 

adjacent white wall. 


44, the Weston reading for the shadow area of the face was 50, a 
ratio to the light area of 1 to 8. In Figure 45, close to the reflecting 
wall, the shadow reading was 200, a ratio to the light area of 1 to 2. 

It is this ratio which determines whether or not the range of 
luminosities is photographically usable. It is not a matter of the 
blackness of the shadows or of the brightness of the light-area, but 
of the ratio between the two. 

In outdoor photography, it is most important that attention be 
given to this ratio. If a meter is used, readings should be taken of 
the shadows as well as the light area. The mere fact that the reading 
for the light-area is 400 tells you very little about the state of affairs. 
Is the shadow reading 25, or 50, or 200? Knowing the ratio between 
the two, you have a clear idea of the photographic possibilities of 
the situation. 

In Figure 46 are shown examples of subjects involving S:L ratios 
of 1:1, 1:2, 1:4, 1:8 and 1:16. All negatives were of the 7-D type, 
exposed for the light-area and fully developed. 


106 










Figure 46a. Figure 46b. 



Figure 46c. 


Figure 46. These pictures illustrate five different 
versions of the S:L ratio. All negatives were of 
7-D type (exposed for light-area , fully devel¬ 
oped.) 


A. S:L ratio 1:1. 

B. S:L ratio 1:2. 

C. S:L ratio 1:4. 

D. S:L ratio 1:8. 

E. S:L ratio 1:16. 



Figure 46e. 












The Basic Ratio. 

For photography outdoors, we may set up the ratio of 1 to 4 as 
the preferable relationship between the shadow and light-areas in 
the face of your model. Figure 47 is a straight photograph without 
flash taken under conditions where this relationship prevailed. Ac¬ 
tual Weston meter readings were 100 for the shadow area and 400 
for the light area of the face. 

Note that I say “the face of the model.” Naturally, there will 
be numerous darker areas in the picture—in the hair, in shadows 
in the costume, etc. There may also be brighter areas—light-catching 
elements in the background, or the sky itself. But we are postulat¬ 
ing our lighting, and our exposure, on getting the best possible 
gradation in the area that is presumably of greatest interest to us, 
the face of the model. 

In the present case, of course, we are dealing with portraiture, 
with the best representation of flesh tones. But the flesh tone will 
serve as a norm for many other types of pictorial material. This 
1:4 relationship is a good thing to aim at with all sorts of subject 
matter. Naturally, the whole range of the picture will usually con¬ 
stitute a much larger ratio, but (if it’s a good picture) the dominat¬ 
ing element should be capable of being presented in a S:L ratio no 
more than 1:4. We shall have more to say about this point in the 
next chapter. 

This ratio of 1:4 may seem a bit arbitrary, but it has been deter¬ 
mined by extensive experimentation. Of course, with sufficient rea¬ 
son, it may be violated on occasion. A particular dramatic effect 
may justify a higher ratio, just as a decorative effect may justify a 
lower one. But, for sound photographic results, 1:4 will be found 
a good working formula. 

It should he noted, lest there be any misunderstanding, that the 
S:L ratio of 1:4 is postulated on the use of the 7-D negative. With 
the use of restricted development, it is possible to deal with much 
larger ratios. But this procedure always involves the loss of full 
gradation in the area where you want it the most—the face of the 
subject. 

The Ratio at Work. 

Early in your survey of a tentative outdoor set-up, take meter 


108 


Figure 47. 

Soft sunlight giving an ac¬ 
tual S: L ratio of 1:4, 
100:400 in this case. A 7-D 
negative. 



readings of the light area and shadow area of the face of your sub¬ 
ject. The ratio between the two will tell you the needs of the situ¬ 
ation. If the ratio is 1:4 or less, you may shoot for a 7D negative 
and be sure of excellent photographic results. If it is greater than 
1:4, you may (if you have no other means at hand) have to be 
content with a #3 negative. Far better in such a case, you should 
start looking about for a natural means of reflection, or else resort 
to synchro-sunlight photography. 

W 

Choice of Set-Up for Synchro-Sun. 

Having determined by your meter reading that you must make 
a synchro-sunlight shot, you must next discover the proper set-up 
for your flash-sun combination. 

In certain special instances, which we will mention later, the sun 
is made to serve as the fill-in light. However, in the present instance, 


109 









Figure 48. Illogical illumination. A bad 
beginning for sun-plus-flash. 


Figure 49. Logical illumination, although 
contrasty. A good beginning for sun-plus- 
flash. 


we are considering the sun in its logical and much more common 
use as the principal source. 

In their respective functions as principal source and fill-in, the 
sun and the flash are subject to much the same limitations as we 
prescribed, in the preceding chapter, for the main and subsidiary 
lights in portraiture. Leaving aside the blackness of the shadows, 
the angle of the sun should be photographically agreeable. Since 
we are dealing with an outdoor setting, a somewhat more extreme 
angle may he tolerated than would be in the studio; hut, without 
the fill-in, the face must still be logically illuminated. Compare 
Figures 48 and 49. Although the shadows are too dense in Figure 
49, the illumination is sensible and takes care of the principal 
points of interest, which are completely overlooked in Figure 48. 
Figure 49 is a good beginning for a synchro-sunlight picture, Figure 
48 is not. Although the flash gives one somewhat increased freedom 
in the selection of backgrounds, the basic limitation imposed by the 
angle of the sunlight must never be lost sight of. 

On analogy with the rule suggested for portraiture, one should 
avoid too wide an angle between the two axes of illumination. For 


110 



GROUND PLAN 


ELEVATION 


Figure 50. Sun-source and flash-source should not be separated more widely than 60 
degrees in either horizontal or vertical plane. 


studio portraiture we suggested 45 degrees as the widest permissable 
angle between the two light sources. In an outdoor setting, we may 
tolerate a slightly wider separation, sometimes as much as 60 degrees. 
It should be noted that this angle functions in three dimensions and 
also indicates the highest acceptable elevation of the sun. (See 
Figure 50.) 

Position of Fill-in-Unit. 

Nearly all the adjustment of the fill-in unit will take place along 
the axis of the camera, moving nearer to or further away from the 
subject. There is never any occasion for the position of the fill-in 
source to deviate more than 10 degrees from the axis of the camera. 
(See Figure 51.) After all, we are interested only in illuminating 
the area that the camera can “see.” If the fill-in unit is moved too 
far to one side, it wastes its energy in lighting up the neutral terri¬ 
tory back of the model’s head. With the fill-in source kept near the 
axis, there is better opportunity for merging of the areas affected 
by the two sources. Synchro-sunlight is not a matter of two isolated 
areas, illuminated separately by two sources as in Figure 52. It is 
properly a matter of either two or three merged areas. Two merged 
areas are shown in Figure 53, one area lighted by fill-in, the other 
by sun plus fill-in. Three merged areas occur when the fill-in is 
slightly separated from the camera axis: one area lighted by the 
sun, one by the fill-in, and one by both sources. 


ill 







Figure 51. Fill-in light should stay close to the axis of the 
camera. 


Lighting on the isolated area plan, as in Figure 52, is nearly 
always tricky and false in effect, and cpiite out of place in an out¬ 
door setting. Use of the merged area scheme, however, as in Figure 
53, will produce, if the two sources are properly balanced, an honest 
sort of illumination, genuinely daylight in its effect. 

Balancing the Fill-In. 

Working with a single flash indoors (as described in Chapter 
One), you may operate on a basic exposure and control the effect 
of the flash merely by altering the F: value. But in multiple flash 
(as described in Chapter Two), altering the F: value affects only the 
combined exposure. To vary the relationship of the bulbs, you must 
apply various controls to the lamps themselves—diffusing one or the 
other, changing their relative distances from the subject, etc. In 
synchro-sunlight, you have fundamentally the same set-up as in 
multiple flash, except that you can control only one of the light 
sources—you can’t hang a diffuser on the sun, or move it forty-five 
million miles closer. 

I labor this rather obvious point, because there seems to be mis¬ 
apprehension about it among amateurs who are commencing work 


112 



SUN 


FILL-IN 


SUN 



Figure 52. This is ivrong relationship of 
sun and fill-in. 


fill-in 



Figure 53. Sun and fill-in should overlap, 
producing merged areas of illumination. 


with the flash. When they find, for instance, that their flash unit to 
too bright (as in Figure 54), they are apt to try to correct it by 
closing down the diaphragm. This does no good, of course, as it 
affects only the combined exposure of flash and sun. They could 
close down clear to F :128—at which point, no doubt, they would be 
vastly under-exposed—but they wouldn’t thereby affect their faulty 
light balance by one iota. Only by reducing the brightness of the 
flash unit in Figure 55 (or, conversely, by waiting until the sun 
became a good deal brighter) would it be possible to arrive at a 
proper balance. 

There are four means at hand with which to control the bright¬ 
ness of the flash unit in synchro-sunlight procedure: 

1. Changing the size of bulb. 

2. Changing type of reflector (regular or rifle-beam). 

3. Use of diffuser. 

4. Varying distance of light from subject. 

If your flash unit is anchored to your camera, you will be obliged 
to use one or more of the first three methods. However, if your unit 
is rigged with an extension, much more standardized results may be 
secured by keeping to a single size of bulb and using the fourth 


113 















method exclusively. Thanks to our friend, the law of inverse squares, 
it is possible to secure huge variations of intensity by relatively small 
variations in distance. By measuring distances you have an accurate 
check on the illumination you are getting; whereas, if you juggle 
bulbs, reflectors and diffusers about, you are most apt to lose your 
bearings completely. 

Determination of Balance: By Guess and By God. 

The determination, in synchro-sunlight procedure, of the proper 
strength and distance for your flash unit has always proved a tough 
problem for the amateur (not to mention the professional). In 
meeting the situation, two highly unscientific methods have been 
practiced with verying degrees of success. 

One is the method advocated by a press photographer of my 
acquaintance. His procedure runs something like this: He keeps 
his flash unit attached to his camera, uses a G. E. 21 or Wabash 40 
at all times, and observes the following rule: “When the subject is 
nearer the camera than 10 feet, expose for the flash; when the subject 
is beyond 10 feet, expose for the sun.” 

Of course, this does not pretend to be more than a safe journal¬ 
istic dodge for always getting some sort of a picture. Good photo¬ 
graphic quality and correct lighting balance will result from this 
method only by accident. 

Speaking of accidents brings us naturally to the second of our 
unscientific methods, one that is practiced much more widely and 
in much more austere circles than is commonly admitted. This is it: 
Make a large number of shots, with the flash unit close in, far away, 
and at a considerable variety of distances in between. Triumphantly 
print up the best one of the lot and discreetly forget about the rest. 

Judged on the basis of the carefully chosen results that the public 
is permitted to see, this would seem an excellent method. But it is a 
time-wasting procedure as well as (with bulbs at 11^ to 2S(f per) an 
expensive one. Besides a guy likes to feel that he—and not Lady 
Luck—has had something to do with the making of his picture. 

Determination of Balance: A More Scientific Method. 

Happily for the self-respect of the photographer (as well as for 


114 




Figure 54. Flash too bright. This cannot 
be corrected by closing down the dia¬ 
phragm. 


Figure 55. Over-balance of flash in Figure 
54 corrected by moving flash unit further 
back. 


his bank account), a rather more scientific approach to the question 
is possible. 

But first, in order to be sure that we understand what our 
problem involves, let us take a moment to review its essential points: 

1. You have a model in an outdoor setting. 

2. You have an invariable light source —the sun. 

3. You have a variable light source —your flash unit. 

4. You have a light area in the model’s face. 

5. You have shadow area in the model’s face. 

6. The ratio between these two areas is greater than the 
acceptable basic ratio of 1:4. 

7. You want to know at what distance to put your flash unit 
to produce a 1:4 ratio in the model’s face. 

8. You want to know what exposure to give the whole set-up. 
For clarification of the problem, we assume the following points: 

1. That your flash unit is detachable from your camera and 
may be operated through a long extension. 

2. That your flash bulb is a Wabash “40.” 

3. That you are shooting at 1/200 (a good basic exposure for 


115 



flash). 

4. That you are using A type of film.* 

Since, according to our conditions, the ratio of shadow to light 
area is greater than 1:4, we must therefore find a position of the 
flash unit which will bring just enough illumination to the subject 
to boost the shadow area until it conforms to the 1:4 ratio. The 
situation is a little more complicated than it appears at first glance, 
since the illumination from the flash unit is added to the light area 
as well as to the shadows. (See Figures 50 and 53.) You must, 
therefore, find an amount of light that, when it is added to both 
sides, will produce a final ratio of 1:4. Resorting to a hit of your 
elementary algebra, it would have to be an amount that would 
satisfy the following equation: 

S + X _ 1 
L + X 4 ’ 

in which X equals the unknown amount of light, S the shadow read¬ 
ing, and L the reading for the liglit-area. Solving it for X , we pro¬ 
duce 

v L —4S 


In other words, in order to find the additional amount of light 
required to produce a 1:4 ratio when added to both light and shadow 
areas, multiply the shadow reading by 4, subtract the product from 
the light-area reading, and divide the remainder by 3.** 


* Since the sun is the main source, figure the film at its DAYLIGHT rating.. 

** This formula is included to show the mathematical basis of the “common increment,” the value 
that must be added to both sides to bring about an S:L ratio of 1:4. In practice, it is more convenient 
to refer to Table XV, which gives the increment for the common values of 1:8, 1:16 and 1:32 ratios. 
It will be found that most exterior S:L ratios fall readily into one of these three categories. Slight 
deviations may usually be safely ignored (treating 1:10 as 1:8, 1:13 as 1:16, etc.), since probable 
errors from other sources are more than enough to make meticulous accuracy meaningless. For those 
who want the whole story, however, I include a table of factors for determining the increment “I” 
for any given ratio. 

TABLE XVII 


Ratio, S:L 

Factor 

Ratio, S:L 

Factor 

1:4 

0 

1:20 

5.3 

1:5 

0.3 

1:25 

7 

1:6.5 

0.8 

1:32 

9.3 

1:8 

1.3 

1:40 

12 

1:10 

2 

1:50 

15.3 

1:13 

3 

1:64 

20 

1:16 

4 




To obtain increment necessary to produce 1:4 ratios: (1) Determine ratio represented by your 
S:L relationship (i.e., 1:5, 1:13, etc.). (2) Multiply S value by factor proper to your ratio. (3) 
Product is desired increment. For example: your shadow and light readings are 13 and 130, a 1:10 
ratio. Factor for 1:10 is 2. 13 X 2 = 26 (call it 25), which is the increment. 

These factors may be used with either Weston or General Electric meter readings. 


116 







Figure 56. Originally a 1:8 ratio, 50:400. Necessary increment of 65 
secured with one Wabash “ 25 ” at 16 feet. 


'v£> 




117 



Figure 57. 


Figure 58. 


Flesh against a brilliant grey sky, a difficult problem without the use 
of flash. Increment should be sufficient to lift light-area of face to 
same tone as sky. Flash in Figure 58 is slightly overdone. Mere filter¬ 
ing could not produce such a correction. 



Since it is something which is added to both shadow and light areas, 
I have designated this value as the “common increment/* This phrase 
is chosen, not to impress the reader, hut simply because I had to 
have some sort of convenient handle to apply to the value. “Common 
increment” means, then, the amount of light that must be simul¬ 
taneously added to both shadow and light areas to bring them into a 
relationship of 1:4* 

* The preceding formula is for the purpose of producing a final ratio of 1:4. This is the generally 
ideal ratio. Increments may be calculated, however, to produce any desired ratio. The basic formula 
for this purpose is 

T L — nS 

1 - _ 9 

n — 1 


in which n is the denominator of the desired ratio. If, for example, you were seeking a ratio of 1:8, 
the value of n would be 8. 











Figure 59. Figure 60. 


The original S:L ratio was 50:800, or 1:16, in ivhich S was the 
reading for the face and L the reading for the sky. Figure 59 was 
exposed for S, ivhich gives a silhouette against a blank sky. By 
flash the face is raised to nearly 1:1 relationship with the sky, pro¬ 
ducing an effect analogous to the Basic Light. This calls for an 
increment of about 650, furnished by a Wabash “40” at 8 feet. 



It must be remembered that, in calculating the common incre¬ 
ment, the actual light values are just as important as their ratio. 
You might have, for instance, meter readings of 2 and 16 in one 
case, and of 100 and 800 in the other. The ratio in the two cases is 
identical (1:8), but the required increments would, of course, be 
quite different (about 2.5 in the first case and 130 in the second). 

Calculating “I” by Use of Meter. 

The increment “I,” which must be added to both sides to bring 
about a ratio of 1:4, may be calculated from the Weston meter dial 
without reference to the formula. The procedure is as follows: After 
taking the reading for both shadow and light-areas, set point “C” 
on the dial opposite the first division to the right of the reading for 


119 









Figure 61. 


Figures 61, 62, 63, 64, 65. 

This group notes the progress of the flash 
unit, from a position much too close back 
to the distance that gives the desired 1:4 
rendering. Figure 61 is without flash, with 
an S:L ratio of 25:200. Proper increment 
is 32. Flash (Wabash “25”) is 6 feet dis¬ 
tant in Figure 62, much too close. Dis¬ 
tance in Figure 63 is 11 feet; in Figure 64, 
16 feet. In Figure 65, the distance is 22 
feet, which gives the proper relationship. 
Table XVI indicates 22 feet as the correct 
distance for an increment of 32. 


the light-area. Now note the difference between the value indicated 
by “A” and the first division to the right of the indicated shadow 
reading. This difference is the increment. 

For example: Your shadow and light area read respectively 50 
and 400. You set point “C” on the meter dial one division to the 
right of 400. Point “A” is now one division to the right of 100, value 
130. Note first division to right of 50 (the shadow reading). This has 
a value of 65. 130 minus 65 equals 65, the value of the increment 

Use of this method requires that one know, or have ready access 
to, the values of the intermediate, unnumbered divisions on the 
Weston meter dial. These values are not hard to remember if one 
simply bears in mind that the same sequence 10, 13, 16, 20, 25, 32, 
40, 50, 65, 80, 100, repeats itself four times on the dial: from 0.1 to 
1, from 1 to 10, from 10 to 100, and from 100 to 1000. In fact, all 
one actually needs to remember are the first three numbers, 10, 13 
and 16, and continue redoubling this short sequence. 

Reading “I” from Scale. 

With a little practice, increments may be read directly off the 


120 





Figure 64. 


Figure 65. 


121 












Figure 66. Figure 67. 

“ Backlighting” is an effect that one must be very chary of using, but it is sometimes 
appropriate in an outdoor setting. Original S:L ratio in Figure 66 was 1:16. Increment 
in this case was chosen to build flesh up only to 1:8 ratio. Exposure in Figure 67 was 
based on light area of face. This combination retains brilliance of sun on hair and 

slightly darkens background. 


scale along the bottom of Table XVI. The procedure is as follows: 

For 1:8 ratio. Take next small division to right of S value 
as shown on scale in Table XVI. E.g., for S value of 50, 
increment is 65. 

For 1:16 ratio. Take second major division to right of S value 
on scale. E.g., for S value of 50, increment is 200. 

For 1:32 ratio. Take three major divisions plus one small 
division to right of S value on scale. Or, more simply, multi¬ 
ply S value by 10. E.g., for S value of 13, increment is 130. 
(This is an approximation, but sufficiently accurate for use.) 

This method may be applied to either the Weston or General Electric 
scale in Figure XVI. 

i 

Application of the Increment. 

Let us now consider a concrete instance. Suppose the model is 
in contrasty sunlight. You take a Weston reading on his (or her) 


122 





Figure 68. Figure 69. 

A face “lit up like a lantern” is exhibited in Figure 69. Despite the opaque shadows, 
Figure 68 is felt as more pleasing and honest illumination. 


face: shadows 50, light-area 400. Here, the ratio is 1:8, obviously 
too contrasty. Your problem, then, is to find the common increment 
which, added to both shadow and light areas, will raise them to a 
ratio of 1:4. Figuring from the formula 

X = L —4S 
3 ’ 

or resorting to Table XV, you find that the required value is 65.* * 

You now know that in order to get your balance, you will have 
to put your flash unit at such distance from the subject that it would 
boost the meter reading up 65 points, to 115 in the shadows and to 
465 in the light-area. How do you determine this distance? You 
could (knowing the “flash number” of the bulb and its loss of 
efficiency out of doors) figure it out for yourself; but it is much more 
convenient to look at Table XVI. Here are correct distances, experi- 

115 1 

* 50 + 65 = 115. 400 + 65 = 465. -= - (approx.) 

465 4 


123 










mentally checked, for several types of bulbs, and for all increment 
values from 0.4 to 1600. 

From Table XVI it appears that, for a desired increment of 65, 
the Wabash 40 bulb would have to be placed at a distance of 25 feet 
from the subject. 

The final point to be checked is the exposure required by the 
sun-plus-flash combination. To determine this, we take the sum of 
the reading for the light-area (400) plus the increment (65). Since 
we are aiming for a 7D negative, based on the actual value of the 
light-area, 465 is the number we must expose for. So set the arrow 
of your meter to 500 (which is the closest setting to 465). If you are 
shooting at 1/200, and are using A type of film, this calls for a 
diaphragm setting of F: 18. The series in Figures 61 to 65 clearly 
illustrate the working out of this principal. 


Meters. 

The two most popular and generally used light meters are those 
manufactured by Weston and General Electric. Both are excellent 
products and are, with correct handling, as accurate as such instru¬ 
ments can be. There are, however, important differences in the cali¬ 
bration of the two meters. The General Electric meter uses a straight 
arithmetic scale of “foot candles.” The scale on the Weston meter 
is a geometric one, corresponding to the geometric progression of 
exposures and F: values. On account of this fact, the two scales are 
difficult to compare. Of the two, the Weston scale is more readily 
applicable to the “increment system,” herewith outlined, for deter¬ 
mining proper balance in sun-plus-flash pictures. However, in order 
that users of General Electric meters may make use of the system, we 
have attached to the graph in Table XVI a scale of approximately 
corresponding G. E. light values. The values below 65 on the G. E. 
scale will be read with the cover open, those above 65, with the cover 
closed. 

The increment values in Table XV for all standard ratios are 
given in both General Electric and Weston versions. 


124 


Table XV 


Weston Scale General Electric Scale 


1:8 ratios 

Increment 

1:8 ratios 

Increment 

6.5 

50 

8 

2.2 

18 

2.8 

13 

100 

16 

4.5 

36 

5.6 

25 

200 

32 

9 

72 

11 

50 

400 

65 

18 

140 

22 

100 

800 

130 

36 

290 

45 

200 

1600 

250 

72 

560 

90 

1:16 ratios 


1:16 ratios 


6.5 

100 

25 

2.2: 

: 36 

9 

13 

200 

50 

4.5: 

: 72 

18 

25 

400 

100 

9 : 

:140 

36 

50 

800 

200 

18 : 

: 290 

92 

100 

1600 

400 

36 :560 

140 

1:32 ratios 


1:32 ratios 


6.5 

200 

55 

2.2 

72 

21 

13 

400 

110 

4.5 

140 

42 

25 

800 

220 

9 

290 

84 

50 

1600 

440 

18 

560 

168 

For determining 

increment with odd ratios 

-1:5, 

1:6.5, 

1:10, etc. — use 


formula or factors in Table XVIII (page 116). 


Summary of Procedure for Sun-Plus Flash. 

Let us now summarize the principal points in the procedure for 
making a picture with the combination of sunlight and synchronized 
flash. 

1. Check the angle of the sun. Place the model so as to get 
best possible lighting from sun only. 

2. Take meter readings of shadow and light-area of model’s 
face. 

3. Note the ratio S :L. If it is no greater than 1:4, there is no 
need of using flash for fill-in. 

4. If ratio S:L is greater than 1.4, determine, by formula or 
from Table XV, the necessary “common increment” 
which the flash must supply. This increment, (I), added 
to both S and L brings them into a relationship of 1:4. 

5. From Table XVI, determine distance of flash unit from 
subject in order to produce desired increment. 

6. Determine the exposure for flash-plus-sun from the com¬ 
bined light value of L plus I. 


125 
















Figure 70. 

Too much flash blackens the background. 


Flash on the Loose. 

Though the sun-plus-flash combination has been with us only a 
few years, its misuses and excesses are already well standardized. 
Brief mention will serve to identify and explain most of them. 

1. Face over-lighted. Not uncommon are sun-plus-flash pictures 
in which the model’s face seems to be lit up like a Japanese lantern. 
(Figure 69, for instance.) It appears to be not merely illuminated, 
but to glow from within by some fiendish agency. This effect results 
from a flash unit that is much too powerful, or is brought much too 
close. 

2. Background or sky too dark. This error (Figure 70) in¬ 
variably goes along with the preceding one. If the face is over¬ 
illuminated, the sky or other background becomes under-exposed 
and appears extremely dark. This effect is sometimes advanced as 
one of the advantages of flash, since sky tone may thereby be dark¬ 
ened without use of filter and its accompanying color distortions. 
But this is an effect that should be employed with discretion, since 
it looks ridiculously grim and melodramatic with ordinary subject 
matter—as if one should try to do a spring dance to “The Ride of 


126 




Table XVI 



Line B. G.E. 16 A. 

Line C. G.E. 5 (special reflector) 

Line D. Wabash 40, Wabash 25 (special reflector) 

Line E. G.E. 31 (focal plane); G.E. 5 (regular reflector) 

Line F. G.E. SM (special reflector); Wabash 0; Wabash 25 (regular reflector); Wabash 2A 
(focal plane) 

Line G. G.E. SM (regular reflector) 

Procedure: Take meter readings. Note ratio of S:L, and from Table XV, determine the 
increment required to produce an S:L ratio of 1:4. Find this increment on base line of 
chart. Follow up the vertical line corresponding to increment until it intersects the 
diagonal line corresponding to your bulb. Opposite this point, on left side of chart, will 
be found the distance (in feet) at which bulb should be placed from the subject. 


127 













































































the Valkyries.” So pronounced an effect as this is worth saving for 
use with appropriate subject matter. See Figures 71 and 72. 

3. Inconsistent Shadows. When there is lack of balance in the 
sun-flash set-up, there is almost certain to he inconsistency in the 
shadows. At the worst, there will be two separate sets of shadows 
in the face, betraying light from two sources. Or the shadows in the 
face will go one direction, those in the background, the other. A less 
serious discrepancy appears when shadows fail to match in density. 
In Figure 74, for example, the shadows on the face are considerably 
softened by the fill-in flash. The model’s shadow on the sand, being 
on a receding plane, is less affected by the flash, therefore appears 
perceptibly darker. 

4. Illogical in general. Inconsistency of shadows is really a 
special case of had logic in the use of sun-plus-flash. But the very 
nature of the flash renders it prone to illogicalities. The flash bulb, 
in short, enables one to bring startling illumination into places where 
the very logic of things demands that the lighting be subdued. 

A well-known early example of synchro-sunlight photography 
shows two children walking through the woods. In this place of 
subdued light and soft shadows, they are suddenly transfixed by a 
blast of light from nowhere in particular, a light of which it may be 
truly said that it “never was on land or sea.” It is an excellent back¬ 
ground, it is a charming picture of the children, hut the lighting 
just doesn’t make sense. 

5. Main source and fill-in too nearly equal. We have suggested 
1:4 as the best all-round value for the ratio S :L. There may be occa¬ 
sions when, with a very soft and non-committal background, or with 
mere sky as a background, it is justifiable to reduce this ratio to as 
low as 1:2. Lower ratios than this are liable to introduce' illogical 
and equivocal effects, with darkened skies and background shadows 
more strongly marked than those of the subject. 

Theoretically, the system of “common increments” operates along 
the lines of the classic instance of Achilles and the tortoise, with the 
shadow area ( S + I) always approaching, but never quite catching 
up with, the light area (L -f- I). But in actual practice, it doesn’t 
work out that way; for darkened skies and illogically directed 


128 



Figure 71. 


Figure 72. 


Figures 71 and 72. “The Three Witches,” showing the use of 
flash to neutralize sunlight and blot out the background. 


129 








Figure 73. Figure 74. 

Flash may produce discrepancy in shadows. Compare in Figure 74, the density of 
shadows on the model’s throat and on the sand. 


shadows immediately betray the moment when the fill-in light begins 
to usurp the prerogatives of the main source. 

6. Main source and fill-in too widely separated. Sixty degrees 
has been suggested as the widest permissible separation between 
fill-in and main source. Wider angles than this incur the danger of 
losing the desirable merged illumination of the subject. (Figure 
53.) Any greater angle is apt to produce an artificial type of lighting. 
Wider separation still may produce an actual zone of shadow between 
the two zones of light—a generally ridiculous and illogical effect. 

7. Smacks and smears of light. Much esteemed by some who 
have learned about lighting in the studio, instead of looking at what 
the sun had to offer, is the sort of illumination shown in Figure 76. 
Here are patches of light exploding where they mean less than 
nothing, gobs of light entangled in the hair and dripping over the 
ear like a campaign tomato. Of course, the fill-in has been brought 
much too close to the subject and has been concentrated into too 
narrow a beam. Obviously, also, the fill-in is operating at an angle 
too wide from the direction of the main source. 


130 









Figure 75. Figure 76. 

Smacks and smears of light induced by flash unit too close and too concentrated. 


The Sun as Second Fiddle. 

In all the examples so far considered, the subject has been placed 
in the direct sunlight, which has in all cases served as the principal 
source of illumination. The flash has acted merely as a fill-in to 
balance the brightness of light and shadow areas in the face of the 
subject. 

There are only a few cases in which, with the subject in direct 
sunlight, the flash may justifiably be promoted to the position of 
principal source. One of them is the example already mentioned, 
The Three Witches (Figure 72), wherein the emphasis is on the 
sheer melodramatic effect of the darkened sky and irregular angle 
of illumination. 

A less strained example of the subordination of sun to flash occurs 
in Figure 77. Here was a complexity of circumstances. The sun was 
low and clear, nearly setting. This flat angle of the sun produces a 


131 








Figure 77. 

Flash as main source, sun as 
fill-in. 


very ugly illumination if the subject faces it. However, only by 
facing it could the desired background be used. Altogether, it was 
a typical photographer’s dilemma. So the flat-angled sun was rele¬ 
gated to the position of fill-in, while the flash unit, operating at an 
angle of about 45 degrees to the sun, was brought in close enough 
to serve as the main source, with an illumination about three times 
greater than the sun. 

Flash in the Shade. 

However, the principal use of flash dominant over the sun occurs 
in cases away from the direct daylight. Under the eaves of the porch, 
in cloisters, or indoors during the day, it may be necessary to use 
the flash as the main source. In cases such as these, the main issue 
is speed , since the lighting under these conditions is usually very soft. 

Care must be taken that the flash does not swamp this soft interior 
illumination. For the general set-up, we follow the ideas we outlined 
in the first part of this chapter, simply bearing in mind that the 


132 






Figure 78. 

Set-up combining flash with 
indirect daylight indoors. 



SUN 

CAMERA 


sun-source and flash-source are reversed in position as well as in 
function. The basic set-up becomes that of Figure 78, which should 
be compared with Figure 53. 

Since the daylight is now serving as the fill-in, it should be 
directed approximately along the axis of the camera. The daylight 
in these circumstances is not strongly directional, so you actually 
have considerable latitude in the choice of camera angle. The flash, 
now functioning as principal source, should in most cases be sepa¬ 
rated about 45 degrees from the camera axis. 

The question of comparative light values and the S:L ratio takes 
a different form under these conditions. In the final picture, the 
light reading L is going to serve as the shadow value. Consequently, 
S, the actual shadow reading is disregarded. 

However, we still wish to produce, in the final result, the S:L 
ratio of 1:4. Once more the problem resolves itself to the determina¬ 
tion of the proper “increment” to produce this ratio. We must find 
an amount of light which, added to the daylight reading, will produce 
an illumination four times as bright. Putting the problem, as before, 
into equation form, we get 


133 







L _1 

L + I _ 4 

Which resolves itself to the simple formula 

I = 3L 

(in which L is the light reading and / is the increment that must be 
supplied by the flash). 

Let us again take a concrete instance. The meter reading in our 
sheltered situation is 13 for the light area. By the formula above, we 
know that we must have an increment of 3L or 39 in order to produce 
a 1:4 balance in the result. 

Suppose that we are using a Wabash 25 or 0 bulb. Look in Table 
XVI. In this case, it indicates a distance of 20 feet for the Wabash 
25 or 0 to deliver the desired increment of 39. 

The exposure is based on the ultimate light value or L -f- I, which 
equals approximately 50. Figure the exposure on this value, using 
the tungsten rating for the film, since the flash functions as the prin¬ 
cipal source. If we were using A film and shooting at 1/200, the 
indicated F: value for the set-up under consideration would be F: 4.5. 

Summary of procedure for Dominant Flash. 

For shooting under conditions in which the flash must be the 
dominant source, the procedure may be thus summarized: 

T. Let the daylight be directed approximately along the axis 
of the camera. 

2. Separate the flash unit about 45 degrees from the axis. 

3. Take the meter reading in the light-area (L) of the 
subject. 

4. Determine the necessary increment, which is three times 
this reading (3L). 

5. From Table XVI, determine distance of given flash unit 
which will produce this increment. 

6. Base exposure on value of four times the reading for 
light-area (4L). Use the tungsten film ratings. 

We shall have more to say about this procedure in the next 
chapter. Many architectural details and interiors must be shot under 
similar lighting conditions. 


134 




\ 

'o 

1 

a<3 


‘Pelecani Occidentals’ 


Roland Beers 


Figure 79. Prize-winner in Graflex Golden Anniversary Picture Con¬ 
test. Data: 4x5 Speed Graphic, 1/100 at F:22. One medium sized flash 
bulb, sun as backlight. 


135 





Chapter Four 


Landscape and Architecture 


Conventional applications of the flash have led us to associate 
its use primarily with the photographic quest for speed , with im¬ 
patient or fidgety subjects in an inadequate light. 

Yet, curiously enough, one of the most interesting uses of flash 
is found in a field where the subject matter can never be called 
impatient or uncooperative. Landscapes and old houses are the 
favorite material of many photographers because they do not demand 
the hectic collaboration of uncertain human factors: they are simply 
there , and wait patiently through the years for you to seek them out. 

But when you attain the mature viewpoint that brings increased 
appreciation of such things, you find yourself, all too often, despite 
your experience, in the familiar predicament of the amateur: you 
see one thing, your camera sees another. What seemed to be a 
charming bit of countryside your camera declares to be cluttered 
and uninteresting. At the same time, this allegedly veracious instru¬ 
ment points out that the quaint old house that you so admired is 
extremely crass and commonplace. 

In this case, even as with the sentimental records which we men¬ 
tioned in the first chapter, the flash proves of genuine value to the 
photographer in helping him to realize, in his picture, that which 

his eye sees. 


136 


Landscape as Portraiture. 

What do we mean by a landscape? Since landscapes are under 
consideration, it might be a good idea to find out before we go any 
further. 

Good photographic landscapes are rare, much rarer than good 
portraits. This is due, in part at least, to lack of understanding as to 
what constitutes a landscape. 

If we put someone in front of a camera and proceed forthwith 
to take photographs of him, there is a reasonable chance that we 
might get a portrait of him. But if we take our camera out-doors 
and shoot at random, the chances of our getting a landscape are 
about equal to those of my being struck down by a meteorite as I 
write this. 

Landscape, I believe, is best understood as a sort of portraiture. 
In other words, every good landscape must feature some single lead¬ 
ing character. So it is just as futile to try to make a landscape of the 
Grand Canyon as it is to try to make a portrait of the crowd on the 
beach at Coney on a hot Sunday. 

Study of good landscapes will reveal that they are essentially 
portraits of trees, of rocks, of streams, of small buildings, of corners 
of large ones, of various nooks and crannies and intimate aspects of 
individual items in the world about us. Before shooting a landscape, 
be sure that it contains some portrait element. 

1:4 in Landscape. 

In the last chapter we pointed out the importance of the 1:4 
ratio in out-door portraiture. This 1:4 ratio, you will remember, 
applied not to the total range exhibited in the picture, but to the 
range in the area of greatest interest, the subject’s face. Similarly, in 
landscape or architectural material, the ratio should be about 1:4 in 
the single element of greatest interest, that which we have not too 
fancifully designated as the “portrait element” in the picture.* 

Note, in Figure 81, how the picture is improved, and how the tree 
gains in importance as the “principal character” by the introduction 

* The use of the 1:4 ratio, it must be remembered, is postulated upon adherence to the 7-D 
negative procedure. 


137 




of the 1:4 ratio in rendering it. Even the humble structure in Figure 
83 is given a bit more dignity by improved light balance. 

Flash and Landscape. 

Heretofore, the amateur who realized the need sometimes of 
light control in landscape shots had no means of realizing it. Ob¬ 
viously, it was impracticable to set up a reflector to illuminate a tree 
or the whole side of a house. On movie locations, when contrasts are 
too heavy, light men bring a few sun arcs to bear on the situation. 
Now the amateur with a couple of flash bulbs in his pocket has 
equivalent command over recalcitrant lighting conditions. 

Balancing the Foreground. 

Figure 80 is an example of this sort of thing that pleases the eye 
but does not make a good landscape. The jagged contours of the 
old tree is full of character. Here is an excellent subject for a 
good piece of landscape “portraiture.” The stormy formation of the 
clouds is also important as a background. 

But when we try to make the picture, we immediately run into 
the ancient bane of the photographer—more contrast than his 
medium can handle. There is too wide a difference between the 


138 




“Oak Branch' 


William Mortensen 


Figure 81. Flash is necessary in this case to lift the illumination of the “portrait 
element” of the picture, while still holding the detail in the sky. Exposing for the 
sky, without flash, as in Figure 80, results in a mere silhouette. Had one exposed 
for the foreground, sky detail would have been lost. 




Figure 82. 


Figure 83. 


“Pour les Dames” 


Original S:L ratio 50:400. Raised to a 1:4 relationship by 
Wabash “25” at 16 feet. 


luminosity of the sky and that of the tree for the film adequately to 
record them at the same time. The contrast, the S :L ratio, according 
to the meter, is about 1:32. If you lengthen your exposure so as to 
include some of the characteristic detail of the branch, you blank 
out your sky completely. And if you concentrate on getting the 
right exposure for the clouds, the branch becomes a mere silhouette. 
But the point of the picture depends upon getting both things, tree 
and clouds; either without the other is uninteresting. 

Flash offers the only reasonable method for balancing these 
divergent luminosities and bringing them down into comfortable 
photographic range. By means of meter reading and Table XV, a 
proper increment is determined to light the tree a bit brighter than 
the clouds. This necessitates bringing the flash unit quite close in. 
(Figure 81.) 

A similar problem would have been presented if, instead of 


140 












Figure 84. Rendition of foliage improved by use of flash. 


clouds, the background had consisted of distant sun-lit hills. Here 
again is a discrepancy in the brightness of foreground and back¬ 
ground, not to be reconciled by ordinary photographic means. A 
judicious use of flash would put enough luminosity into the fore¬ 
ground tree to make an easily handled 1:4 relationship with the 
hills. In this way, the tree would gain interesting detail, but would 
still remain sensibly darker than the background. 

Flash and Foliage. 

So far, in dealing with the use of flash in landscape, we have 
spoken of cases in which the principal subject was fairly close to the 
camera. This is necessary, of course, when any appreciable amount 
of illumination is demanded of the flash unit. Figure 84 presents a 
different question. The dominating mass, the nearest oak tree, is 
about 75 feet distant. The foliage is very dark, hut we want it to 
represent something more than a mere black blob in the picture. 
It is not feasible to extend the exposure to catch more detail in the 
leaves, because in so doing we would over-expose the distant hills. 
In short, the same old predicament. 

A big flash bulb (Wabash #2 or G. E. #50) solves the problem. 
At such a distance, its illumination is not great. But it is sufficient, 
in the hazy sunshine of this day, to slightly lift the tone of the dark 
foliage here and there, and to introduce a little vitality into what 
would otherwise be a dead black mass. 


141 









Figure 85. Figure 86. 


“ Cloister: San Juan Capistrano.” Long range illumination by one G.E. No. 5 in “rifle 
beam” reflector. Lens of long focal length used in Figure 86 in order to eliminate 
over-exposed foreground. 


Corridors . 

Figure 85 is representative of a common type of problem—a long 
narrow hall or corridor. Two things are essential: to get a long throw 
of the light; to avoid over-exposure of the foreground elements, with 
rapid falling off of the illumination. 

The necessary long throw is provided by the use of a midget bulb 
in a “rifle beam” reflector. This type throws a concentrated beam 
of not more than 30 degrees spread. The danger of over-exposed 
foreground is met by using a lens of long focal length. By this means, 
the over-exposed elements are excluded from the picture area (com¬ 
pare areas covered in Figures 85 and 86) and the picture begins at 
the point where falling off ceases to be drastic. The farther away it 
is from the light source, the less becomes the falling-off in illumina¬ 
tion within a given distance. (For example: at 11 feet from the 
source, the light has only 1/121 of the strength it had at 1 foot. But 
at 20 feet, it still has one-quarter the power it did at 10 feet.) 


142 






Figure 87. 


Figure 88. 


1:32 ratio balanced by use of flash. 


Notice that the flash is carefully subordinated: it fills in the 
shadows where necessary, but does not destroy the side illumination 
from the sun. 


Against the Light. 

Figures 87 and 88 demonstrate a photographic predicament 
readily solved by use of the flash. It is a familiar example of the old 
dilemma: you want to include both the interior and the exterior 
(more or less as your eye sees them), but you quickly discover that 
exposing for one area means the sacrifice of the other. 

Here we wish to build up the interior detail to a reasonable 
relationship with the bright exterior. Too much flash in such a 
case, with the inside brighter than the outside, is unpleasant and 
illogical. A good general relationship between the two is our old 


143 





Figure 89. Small amount of flash used to make interior match shadow area across the 

street. 


friend, the familiar 1:4 ratio. This will keep the interior detail 
sufficiently readable, but logically subordinated to the sunny exterior. 

We require, then, from the flash, an increment of light that will 
raise the general inside reading (S) to one-quarter of the general 
reading for the exterior, (L). The amount usually can be determined 
without recourse to elaborate arithmetic; but, just for the record, 
the formula in this case is: 


144 









Figure 90. Figure 91. 


Violent contrast as a result of sky reflection being cut by over¬ 
hanging branches. S:L ratio of 13:400, or 1:32. Approximately 
1:4 ratio in Figure 91 with one Wabash 2A bulb at 11 feet. 

c^O 



i = —— s. 

4 

The effect of the flash on the exterior under these conditions is, of 
course, negligible. 

In the instance of Figure 88, the S:L ratio between the dark 
interior and the general exterior was 6.5:200, a ratio of 1:32. We 
want an increment that will build up the interior illumination to 
about one-quarter of the exterior. This means an increment of about 
40, since 46.5:200 is approximately 1:4. (The increment in cases of 
this type affects the S reading only.) For an increment of 40, follow¬ 
ing Table XVI, we use a Wabash “25” at 20 feet, or a G. E. 5 in 
regular reflector at 25 feet, from the arch. 


145 





Supplementary Notes 
on 

Professional Flash 


Don M. Paul 


Introduction to Professional Flash 


The press deserves a credit line for its acceptance of flash at a 
time when it was still an untried, unproved experiment, and for its 
peristence in the development of flash technique since then. Since 
1930, almost every major development in synchronized flash has 
been due to the perseverance of newspaper men who have put in a 
plug for it on all occasions, and have hastened its acceptance by 
means of homemade equipment which soon became standard, and 
through revolutionary usages which eventually became regular pro¬ 
cedure. Thanks to the newsmen, flash has become indispensable. 
It has occasioned new trends in photography, it is the basis of a new 
kind of journalism. 

William Mortensen has presented the case of the pictorialist and 
has, I believe, given us a widened outlook on the potentialities of 
flash. It is characteristic of the pictorialist that he works with a 
certain degree of deliberation, molding and shaping his subject 
matter to order, and then photographing it according to plan. Quite 
different is the case of the “spot” photographer who is confronted 
by subject matter which he must photograph on the spur of the 
moment, without opportunity to plan his shot or arrange his material. 
Obviously, this situation requires a different technique, direct and 
simple. 


148 


This professional section deals mostly with “spot” photographers, 
the barriers that confront them, and the devices used to surmount 
them in the quest for picture material. We find spot photographers 
in many trades—on newspapers, in movie still departments, on police 
forces, in hospitals, in aircraft factories, in radio studios, in any field 
where publicity, documentation, or news is concerned. 

In most cases the technicalities involved in the use of flash are 
similar, yet the circumstances involved in procuring pictures differ 
radically. Each of these fields is highly specialized, with the photog¬ 
raphers in them trained in the applicable fundamentals. 

These differences are our concern now. William Mortensen, 
through his experiments, has illustrated excellently how the pictorial 
artist can benefit by the use of flash. He has outlined the basis on 
which good flash pictures can be taken. Now, by applying these 
principles to other fields, keeping in mind that each field plays its 
part in the daily scene, you will see how varied are the applications 
of flash photography. 

To the experts who have assisted in the compilation of this sec¬ 
tion, my sincere thanks. 

Don M. Paul 
Hollywood, California. 


149 


Documentary Photography 


It would be difficult to imagine a major field of photographic 
endeavor which has benefited more directly from the advent of the 
flash bulb than has the documentary. The documentary photog¬ 
rapher sets out to record life, as it is really lived, and in order to do 
that he must be able to get a well lighted, fully exposed picture under 
every conceivable condition. No such freedom from photographic 
limitations was possible until the flash bulb came along bringing not 
only complete freedom but a vast extension of possible photographic 
activities. 

It is universally acknowledged that by far the finest and most 
extensive job of photographic documentation is that which is being 
carried out by the Farm Security Administration under the direction 
of Roy Stryker. In fact the contribution of Mr. Stryker and his 
group of expert photographers has been so outstanding that the 
phrase “F.S.A. Photography” has come to have more meaning for 
many than the word “documentary” which is intended to describe it. 

Mr. Stryker has this to say about the application of flash to 
F.S.A. Photography: 

“The F.S.A. photographer’s camera is a recording device in¬ 
tended to register the pulse, temperature, vitality, complexion, nerve- 
tension, and the Bertillon measurements of contemporary America. 
His flash gun is useful to him in the exact degree in which it helps 
him in this recording job. He may shoot flat flash or multiple flash 
according to the particular requirements of light, subject matter and 
the story which must be told. Generally speaking, these require¬ 
ments fall into the following categories: 


150 



“Last Minute Instructions’* Lee (F.S.A.) 

Figure 92. High school basketball game, Enfaula, Oklahoma, Feb. 1940. A fine 
action shot by F.S.A. 


1. The recording of fast action in poor light. (Figures 92, 93.) 

2. The bringing out of a maximum of factual detail in places 
where adequate natural or electric light sources are not available. 
(Figures 94, 95, 96.) 

3. The re-creation of the ‘mood’ of existing light by its duplica¬ 
tion with multiple flash, thus eliminating long exposure and guaran¬ 
teeing a maximum focal depth. (Figures 97, 98, 99.) 

4. The use of multiple flash for explanatory purposes, as, for 
instance, in the case of machinery in a textile plant, which requires 
the correct interpretation of planes in depth; these would be flattened 
out with a single bulb on the gun. (Figures 99, 100.)” 


151 




•w 



“Jigger at the Square Dance ” Lee (F.S.A.) 

Figure 93. Action—and how. One of the famous Pie Town series. 




K 


£ 




152 






“Mother and Son at Pie Supper” Lee (F.S.A.) 

Figure 94. This shot, from Muskogee County, Oklahoma, shows the facility of the 
flash in completely factual portraiture. 


“Memphis Stock Exchange” Marion Post-Walcott (F.S.A.) 

Figure 95. Full factual detail under poor lighting conditions. 








* * Vtte 


“We may not have much of a house here, but we will have one in Heaven.” 

Community Camp, Oklahoma City. 

Figure 96. Lee (F.S.A.) 


154 







“Having a Beer at Art’s” Delano (F.S.A.) 

Figure 97. A rainy day in Colchester, Connecticut. A beautiful piece of flash pho¬ 
tography, accurately recreating the mood of the existing light. 


“Day Nursery” Rothstein (F.S.A.) 

Figure 98. Children in nursery, Tulare Migrant Camp, Visalia, California. Finely 

balanced illumination. 



^m 






“Mill Worker” Delano (F.S.A.) 

Figure 100. Girl worker at the Penemah Mills, Taftville, Connecticut. Note use of 
flash for correct interpretation of receding planes in machinery. 


“Family Group” Delano (F.S.A.) 

Figure 99. Ten people live in this shack. They must move to make way for army 
maneuver grounds. Caroline County, Virginia, June 1941. Interior illumination is 
a little too bright for strict accuracy, but it produces a beautifully stylized result. 























Press Photography 


Newspapers, in the last ten years, have outgrown their swaddling 
clothes of centuries, and have radically changed format. The transi¬ 
tion continues. Straight journalism has found its equal in pictures, 
and the newsphoto has finally gained recognition as a vehicle of 
journalism in its own right. 

Today a picture of a vital news event travels by wire or radio 
across a country, a continent, or a hemisphere, and an hour later 
appears in print in a distant paper. An average large city daily con¬ 
tains forty or fifty pictures. The single photographer who, ten years 
ago, took the few necessary pictures for his paper, now heads a staff 
of ten or more photographers. Picture magazines have sprung into 
prominence, and the disfavor that was once directed at the tabloid 
has disappeared because almost every newspaper, willingly or not, 
has followed the tabloid trend. 

The public wants pictures. It is interested in seeing as well as in 
reading about events that affect its life and living. A picture is a good 
substitute for actual vision. The adage about a picture being worth 
10,000 words has been acted upon. 

This change was caused by radical improvement of photographic 
equipment, hastened by the development of the flashbulb. As soon 
as the flashbulb had proved acceptable, the growth in pictorial em¬ 
phasis in journalism was noted—particularly in that type of picture 
which was rarely attainable before—the candid, real life, action 
picture taken at the scene of the news. 


157 



“The News” William Land 

Figure 101. Prize-winner in Graflex Golden Anniversary 
Contest. 

Data: 3 l /±x4 l / A \ Speed Graphic, 1/100 second at F:32, one 
G.E. No. 21 placed as shown in diagram. 



Today, with news photographs an accepted part of journalism, 
picture editors pay a great deal of attention to their presentation. 
Picture pages are balanced for easy seeing, easy understanding, and 
human appeal. Assignments are planned, and although news-breaks 
that come spontaneously often determine the nature of pictures used, 
still a certain design is followed in balancing newsphoto content in 
a paper. 

There are two general types of newspictures: the spot picture, 
and the planned picture. Spot pictures, of course, are those which 
suddenly arise through some vital occurrence, permitting the photog¬ 
rapher only one chance at immortality. “Bunny Howard’s Story,” 


158 



























“Senator George Speaks ” Eduard I. Bernd 

Figure 101. Prize Winner in Graflex Golden Anniversary Contest. 

Data: 4x5 Speed Graphic, 1/1000 second at F: 16. One Wabash Press-40 
to illuminate figures in shadow. 

This delightful political commentary, needless to say, was unposed. 


159 






Figure 103. 


“Bunny Howard’s Story” 

Clarence Albers, N.Y. Journal-American 

Data: 4x5 Speed Graphic with Mendel¬ 
sohn synchronizer, 1/200 second at F:11 
on ortho. One Wabash Press-40 on cam¬ 
era. This spot picture had national cov¬ 
erage. Action occurred after court trial 
in which judge granted wife custody of 
child. Husband, heartbroken, struck 
down wife and snatched child. Press 
photographer, anticipating picture, was 
ready for it. 



\ 

vD 


Figure 104. 

“A Prayer for a Miracle” 

J. H. McCrory, Los Angeles Times 

Data: 4x5 Speed Graphic with Men¬ 
delsohn synchronizer, 1/200 second 
at F:22 on Agfa Plenachrome Press. 
One Wabash Press-40. 

This teas a front-page news picture 
that has won several prizes. The 
subject offers a grief-stricken prayer 
before a statue of a patron saint 
while her little daughter, one of her 
children from whom she will be 
separated by deportation, sobs at 
her shoulder. 




160 










“Orthopedic Hospital” Hansel Meith 

Figure 105. This well-known flash shot was made in the Children s Hospital — 
Orthopedic Division — Lincoln, Nebraska. (Courtesy of Life Magazine.) 


161 







by Clarence Albers (Figure 103), is a good example of this type of 
picture. The planned picture is explained by its title. Although it 
too may be limited by time or circumstances the photographer in¬ 
geniously manages to plan his angles. George Lacks’ “Bomb Raid” 
(Figure 111) and J. H. McCrory’s “Prayer for a Miracle” (Figure 
104) are good examples. 

To further round out these classifications, we find that subject 
material in newspliotos falls into four groupings: Existence, Success, 
Diversion and Sex. Under the first grouping come those pictures 
which, for news content, materially affect the reader, either directly 
or indirectly: local catastrophes or international wars, political or 
economic events; births and deaths. The Success type of picture is 
that which glorifies the accomplishments of man or mankind. The 
Diversion picture is that which is intended to distract the attention 
of the reader from the monotony of his existence. Under Sex pic¬ 
tures will be found those which relate to marital ties or their dis¬ 
solving; sin; in some cases, crime; in all cases, “cheesecake” or 
leg-art which displays the charms of women. 

Where the portrait artist is permitted time to experiment in his 
work, the press photographer is not. His experimenting must be 
extra-curricular, and on the job his picture taking must be confined 
to news. He must record an image on every piece of film, and each 
image must be pertinent to his work. Above all, knowing that he 
may be permitted by circumstances to take only one picture of an 
event, that one picture must be perfect on the first try. (Oftimes he 
must work hurriedly, or in the dark, where his reflexes dictate his 
activities.) That makes it compulsory that he know his equipment 
intimately, that he be familiar with the limitations of his camera, 
his film and his flashbulbs. 

Camera equipment for press work changes with the times. Makes 
of synchronizers vary with the locality, service being the principal 
factor that determines the make. It is generally conceded, though, 
that the type in which the tripper is permanently mounted on the 
lensboard is the most efficient, as it is least liable to go out of syn¬ 
chronization. 

Wherever circumstances permit, a tripod is used, often for se- 


162 


Texas Cowboy ” 


Hansel Meith 


Figure 106. Flash unit ingeniously 
placed to keep light off of foreground. 
(Courtesy of Life Magazine.) 






Figure 107. 

“The New Models ’ Otto Hagel 
Courtesy, Time, Inc. 





curity and stability, often to permit the use of extensions for side 
or backlighting. 

The midget bulb has gained some acceptance because of spe¬ 
cially designed reflectors that permit diffusion to cover small areas, 
or the concentrating of a beam of light over a distance. The principal 
advantage found in the midget bulb is the convenience in carrying 
a quantity. Nevertheless, the majority of press photographers con¬ 
tinue to use larger bulbs, particularly because they want to be equip¬ 
ped to cover large areas should the occasion arise. In this they are 
limited in using the midget bulb, as concentration of the beam per¬ 
mits covering a small area over a great distance, hut often with a 
spot. 

The greatest interest in photographic trends is manifested by 
press photographers. Just as the acceptance and gradual increase 
in efficiency of the flashbulb is credited to the press, so can consider¬ 
able credit go to them for developments in synchronizers, synchroni¬ 
zation testing equipment, fast film, and durable cameras. Many 
devices for which the news photographer served as guinea-pig have 
passed on to photography generally. The use of flash in tandem or 
multiple arrangement is one development that is now generally 
accepted. 

If time and circumstance permit him to do so, he always uses a 
second bulb on an extension for highlighting and modelling. 

An extreme case of multiple flash is the well-known picture of the 
Hollywood Bowl hy Otto Rothschild. (Figure 108.) As shown in 
the accompanying diagram, fifteen flashbulbs on a huge extension 
were fired at one time by a tripper on the camera. Several different 
ways of accomplishing this shot were tried, with nearly identical 
results. On one occasion, fifteen assistants posted about the bowl 
fired their individual flash bulbs in unison when given the signal 
over the loud speaker system. 

The exposure data recommended by manufacturers of flashbulbs 
is generally accepted with important reservations. As that data ap¬ 
plies to normal surroundings, and as it may be said that nothing is 
normal in press photography, the cameraman must determine the 
deviations required when shooting outdoors in total darkness, or in 
a room where reflective surfaces and white walls increase the benefit 


164 




“Hollyivood Bowl” Otto Rothschild 

Figure 108. Data: 4x5 Speed Graphic with Hei- 
land Sol synchronizer. Shot “open and shut” at 
F :4.5 on Agfa Superpan Press. 15 Wabash No. 2 
arranged as shown in diagram. Concerning this 
unusual shot, Rothschild says: “I have made this 
picture several times without flash but the 
shadow areas, those not affected by the house 
lights, were always too black. This picture was 
made to retain the atmosphere of the lighting at 
Hollywood Bowl, and the flash bulbs were used 
to throw some light into the dark areas.” 


165 












of the flashbulb. He bases this new exposure data on his experiments, 
using the manufacturers’ recommendations as a basis for his tests. 
In time he is so completely familiar with exposure that he auto¬ 
matically makes adjustments for each picture. He favors the “flash 
number” idea, a value which, when divided by the flash distance 
from the subject, gives the proper aperture setting. (See pages 44 
to 49 for details of this system.) 

When photographing individuals with one bulb on the camera, 
he tries, if he can, to get his subjects to stand close enough to a 
neutral background to bring out strong relief, yet not much closer 
than their height, so that large black shadows can be avoided. 

It will be noticed that the press photographer uses flash when¬ 
ever he takes a picture, whether by night or day. It has long been 
known that flash in press use, will eliminate shadows, such as those 
caused by hats when the sun is directly overhead. This results in 
sharp, bright pictures. 

With flash, which is the press photographer’s principal light 
medium, unusual results can be had with a little imagination and 
planning. Sometimes he takes advantage of circumstances to use 
flash rather than let flash use him. If, on a society assignment he 
is asked to wait in the butler’s pantry until he is called, he can repay 
his hostess in kind by showing every one of her double chins through 
unflattering placement of light and camera. 

Although the pioneers of press photography have, in most cases, 
held the edge on newcomers, many interesting cases of youthful 
success can be held up as examples. One amateur, by winning 
several contests held by photographic magazines, found himself a 
professor of photography at a leading university at the age of 
twenty-one. Those prize-winning pictures, incidentally, were taken 
with flash. 

Some of the best pictures ever published come from free-lance 
contributors and amateurs with enough news sense to evaluate and 
photograph an important event. Despite the capable staffs that 
newspapers maintain, hundreds of thousands of “string correspond¬ 
ents” find steady revenue in submitting pictures to local papers and 
national newsphoto agencies. In a recent instance, a free-lance, 
happening to be on the scene of a shooting on an important street 


166 



* Tangle ” C. O. Schlaver, 

City Editor, 
Keivanee Star-Courier 

Figure 109. Data: 4x5 Speed 
Graphic with Kalart Senior syn¬ 
chronizer, 1/200 at F: 11 on Agfa 
Superpan Press. 





“T ouchdown” 

Bob Handsaker, 
Sacramento Bee 

Figure 110. Data: 4x5 Speed 
Graphic with home-made 
flashgun, 1/900 second at F:8 
on Agfa SSS. One Wabash 
2A. Flash served as main 
source, since stadium lights 
would not register at this 
speed. 




in New York, took a series of pictures which were sold for a high 
price to such an agency, with publication all over the country. 

The diplomatic press photographer can and often does make a 
career for himself that offers countless possibilities in his old age. 
Many have elevated themselves to important editorial positions on 
magazine staffs. Many have obtained technical positions in photo¬ 
graphic manufacturing plants. Some have specialized in phases of 
portraiture. Some have gotten into the movie still departments. 
Some have propelled their papers and their own positions by making 
their paper foremost photographically. 

Foreign Press Photography. 

Imagine being confronted with the picture of the year, shooting 
forty-six flashbulbs and wasting forty-six frames of Leica film to get 
one usable picture. That is one experience that George M. Lacks 
can tell about. George was stationed at Shanghai, China, for many 
years, syndicating his pictures throughout the world. Life, for many 
years was pretty peaceful, with only an occasional warlord to upset 
the routine of living. Then came the Japanese invasion of China, 
and the pace became faster. 

Japanese flashbulbs were the only ones available in Shanghai, 
with the exception of a few made in Europe, but all were in the 
same category. They were foil-filled, very fragile, and utterly un¬ 
reliable. The peaks varied as widely as those of the very first Ameri¬ 
can flashbulbs. They would go off before the shutter, after the shut¬ 
ter, and sometimes, like a delayed action bomb—seconds later. 

Once George was extended a privilege which he had been striving 
for years to get—that of photographing a famous warlord who had 
previously refused to be photographed. Carefully Lacks planned 
his shot, focused, put in a bulb, then “Bang!”—the bulb exploded 
with a loud report—sentries and bodyguards ran in from all points 
—George felt bayonets pricking his skin on all sides, rough hands 
grabbed him and hustled him out. A short time afterward the cause 
of the confusion was discovered and after the warlord was thor¬ 
oughly convinced that Lacks wasn’t trying to assassinate him he 
posed for forty-five more pictures, almost all of which were blanks 
because of the varied firing times of the bulbs. George did get a 


168 



“Air Raid in Asia” George Lacks 

Figure 111. Data: Leica with Leitz synchronizer, 1/200 second at 
F:4.5 on Super X. Two medium bulbs diffused with handkerchiefs. 
Lacks comments: “This is what was left of a family of refugees which 
were bombed out of their hut in Kiangwan during a Japanese air¬ 
raid. Father and three other children were killed. Youngest boy in 
picture (leaning against his brother) is blinded” This shot was 
widely used by Red Cross. 


couple of good pictures though, which made publications from 
Shanghai to New York over his credit line. 

During his many years in China, George had many pictorial 
scoops. He not only free-lanced for all four English language papers 
in Shanghai, but was regularly sent on assignment by AP, NEA, 
INS and Wide World. In 1937 he accompanied the Chinese Govern¬ 
ment’s delegation to the Coronation of King George VI as its official 
photographer. He covered Europe, photographing the Coronation, 
Chamberlain, Anthony Eden, Blum, Laval, Ciano, Litvinoff, and 



169 






Figure 112. 

“Hitler at Berchtesgaden’ 9 George Lacks 
Data: Leica with Leitz synchronizer, 
1/200 at F:9. One Wabash Press-40 to 
supplement sunlight. 

This picture is a rarity, as the subject is 
notoriously fearful of flashbulbs. George 
Lacks writes concerning it: “Adolf 
Hitler at Berchtesgaden, June 1937. One 
bulb was placed slightly to the right of 
camera to supplement sunlight striking 
Hitler s face from the left. He consented 
to pose for this shot. Just as I took it 
though, the sun went down. He started 
fidgeting, became impatient. I shot the 
picture anyway, and he moved away to 
talk with some people.” 


many other notables and the shot he prizes most highly (Figure 
112), a rare close-up of Hitler which he took at the Fuehrer’s moun¬ 
tain hideout in Berchtesgaden. The picture he obtained is of par¬ 
ticular interest because it is one of very few flash shots which Hitler 
has permitted to be made of himself. 

The American newsphotographer working in a foreign land is, 
of course, expected to get substantially the same general kinds of 
pictures as his brother at home. The great difference between work¬ 
ing at home and abroad is revealed by such incidents as those related 
above. Equipment and materials are often hard to obtain; super¬ 
stitions, suspicions, prejudices and censorships of all kinds make 
much desired shots hard to get and raise endless difficulties about 
their transmission once they have been obtained. 

Consequently the newsphotographer on a foreign beat must know 
his craft thoroughly in order to turn out an acceptable job with 
makeshift or inferior materials; and he must exercise much diplo¬ 
macy and ingenuity in threading his way through a maze of difficul¬ 
ties which have little or nothing to do with photography. 


170 


Blackout Flash Photography 


The hope of many specialized photographers to take pictures in 
total darkness without visible light seems to be realized today with 
the development of the Blackout flashbulb. Although it has long 
been known that photography with the infra-red ray is possible, it 
was not until the war in Europe made picture taking with invisible 
light necessary that rapid development of present procedures was 
made. Today blackout photography is almost vital in many cases. 

It is known that certain rays in the spectrum are invisible to the 
human eye. Among those rays are the ultra-violet and the infra-red. 
The infra-red is fundamentally a heat ray. Infra-red film, which is 
sensitive to the latter invisible ray, has long been used by day for 
extreme contrast and for cutting through haze and fog, but adapting 
it to use by night with black light is a new device that has gained 
tremendous ground in the short period of its adaptation. This is 
particularly true with European press photographers who are now 
able to take pictures in total darkness without visible light emanating 
from the flashbulbs used. 

Aviation authorities agree that the flare of a sulphur match can 
be seen from an altitude of 8000 feet. Think then what a magnificent 
target an ordinary flashbulb would be to a bombing plane, and how 
thoroughly this menace has been eliminated by the development of 
the blackout bulb. Wherever light is prohibited, or is objectionable, 
pictures which would otherwise be impossible are now attainable 
with black light and infra-red film. 

Until July, 1941, the accepted method of taking blackout pictures 


171 



Figure 113. Figure 114. 

Comparison of Panchromatic and Infra-red rendering. Figure 113 was made with one 
Press-40 on Superpan Press, 1/200 second at F:16; Figure 114, one Wabash black-out 
bulb on infra-red film, 1/50 second at F:8. Colors: dress, dark brown; bow, scarlet; 
eyes, blue. Figure 114 was shot in darkness, with no visible light. 


was by means of the standard flashbulb covered with a deep red 
gelatin which absorbed most of the visible light, permitting the 
infra-red ray to strike the subject. This method was not fool-proof 
as it leaked some visible light. Then came an announcement from 
the research department of Wabash that a special blackout bulb 
had been designed for military use, and that permission had been 
granted for its release to press and industrial photographers who 
wished to experiment in pending trial blackouts that were anticipated 
in hundreds of cities. 

Investigation of this new bulb indicates that it is actually a 
Superflash #2 scientifically coated with a durable filtering substance 
that permits only the infra-red ray to penetrate. Further investiga¬ 
tion indicates that the infra-red ray can be propelled by proper 
reflection, that, like light, it casts a shadow, and that like light it 
can be controlled. Where circumstances permit such handling, it 
has been found that more than one blackout bulb can be used for 
modelling effects when used as side or backlight. 


172 





Figure 115. 

“T ransient ” 

Don Paul 

Data: 4x5 Speed Graphic 
with Sol synchronizer, 1/50 
second at F: 5.6 on infra-red 
film. One Wabash Blackout 
bulb on camera. Subject 
was unaware that he had 
been photographed. Red lettering on ho¬ 
tel sign indicating rates as 25c and 35c 
disappeared under infra-red light. 



Figure 116. 

“Blackout of Betty Fields” 
Don Paul and Ted Allan 

Data: 4x5 Speed Graphic 
with Sol synchronizer, 1/50 
second at F:8 on infra-red 
film. One Wabash blackout 
bulb. Miss Fields was rest¬ 
ing during rehearsal for 
Orson Welles’ CBS radio program. She 
was unaware of flash. A second blackout 
bulb, for backlight, would have improved 
the set-up. 



At the same time, many unusual effects have resulted, and new 
applications have become necessary. For instance, focusing for 
infra-red is different than focusing for normal film. Infra-red rays 
come to a focus slightly farther back. It is, therefore, necessary to 
rack the lens forward about l/200th of the focal length of the lens 
for sharp focus. Such adjustment is hardly necessary for miniature 
cameras, particularly at small apertures, because of the great depth 
of field. Focusing through a rangefinder which is normally adjusted 
will result in infra-red images being slightly out of focus. 


173 



With a flat, normal type reflector, the extreme slowness of pres¬ 
ent-day infra-red film will necessitate shooting at extremely slow 
speeds and wide apertures. At ten feet, with a flat reflector, the 
recommendation is l/50th second at F:5.6 or F:4.5. Smaller aper¬ 
tures are practicable with the use of concentrated types of reflectors, 
such as flood reflectors, or specially designed infra-red reflectors. 
With special reflectors it is often possible to take pictures at ten or 
fifteen feet at l/50th second at F:6.3, F:8 and F: 11. As in the case 
of ordinary light, exposures will vary with surroundings. White walls 
will reflect, dark walls and surroundings will absorb some of the 
infra-red, necessitating aperture readjustment. With smaller aper¬ 
tures, of course, critical focus becomes less of a problem, as increased 
depth of field will take care of focusing. 

Although experiments show that bronzed, gilt, red dyed, or 
blackened reflectors cut down to a minimum the possibility of re¬ 
flected visible light, standard bowl-type reflectors in addition to 
increasing the intensity of the infra-red ray, serve also to conceal 
any fractional visible flash. 

It is, of course, recommended that good formulas be used in 
processing infra-red film; whether Eastman or Agfa formulas is 
immaterial. In tests which were conducted using DK-60, DK-20, 
ABC-Pyro, Agfa 47 and Agfa 17, as well as other developers of 
reputable manufacture, it was found that at proper temperatures, 
infra-red development requires time and a half, in other words, 50% 
above normal developing time. Development must he made in total 
darkness and fixation should actually be complete before lights are 
turned on. 

When using cut infra-red film, holders must be completely light¬ 
tight. Holders adapted to slow standard emulsions may leak enough 
infra-red rays to fog the film. The type of cut-film holder suitable 
for infra-red is the type equipped with slides which have five little 
buttons on the right-hand corner of the slide. 

As a general rule, faces on infra-red film are not very attractive. 
Strange contrasts become visible that are reminiscent of early types 
of standard film. Any substance that is high in red will register 
white. So also will dark browns and shrubbery high in chlorophyll. 


174 


Light eyes will turn black. Deep face shadows will appear. Men 
who seem close shaven will develop beards, as the infra-red ray 
seems to penetrate the skin. Veins will appear through the skin. 
Certain blemishes, which are not visible to the eye become perfectly 
obvious, as do stains in clothing which have been chemically re¬ 
moved, but which magically appear when photographed with infra¬ 
red. This naturally has decided advantages in certain types of work, 
such as police photography, and the photographing of priceless docu¬ 
ments and works of art, where blemishes sometimes prove or disprove 
authenticity. 

The strange results of infra-red in portraiture are shown in the 
accompanying examples. Figures 113-116. Comparison of the normal 
image with that taken with infra-red immediately indicates the sur¬ 
prises that infra-red can bring. 

New applications have suddenly appeared. Medical men are 
interested in the possibilities of infra-red when it is desirable to 
record the very characteristics that are not compatible with por¬ 
traiture. Varicose veins can now be well recorded. In oral and 
surgical photography, accurate records of conditions may be kept. 

Newspapers are featuring pictures of theatre audiences who are 
unaware that they have been photographed. Pictures are being taken 
in courtrooms, where flash is objectionable. Even photographic 
burglar alarms are being devised to record an image of an intruder 
without his knowledge. Police are trying blackout for the collection 
of evidence. 

Film manufacturers are reportedly working on an emulsion 
which will eliminate some of the unpleasant characteristics of infra¬ 
red in portraiture, and will produce an approximately panchromatic 
effect. Hollywood is interested in the idea since perfection of this 
emulsion would make possible the use of infra-red bulbs for the 
shooting of stills during the actual filming of motion pictures. 


175 


Police 


A car sped down a suburban road, leaving a pedestrian lying on 
the street behind it. There were no witnesses. A late driver, passing 
by, saw a body in the road, and called the police. The victim by then 
was dead. If aid had been given him at the time of impact, he might 
have lived, hut he was left to die on the road. An investigation was 
immediately made by a skilled crew of the Los Angeles police, hut 
the only clues to be found were tire marks on the road and, beside 
the body, a radiator ornament of chrome in the shape of a girl, arms 
outstretched as if ready to leap. The ornament had been broken 
off at the ankles, apparently by the impact. Some wag in the group 
of investigators called it Leaping Lena, and thus was the case titled. 

Pictures were taken immediately by the police of all clues. Then 
an exhaustive investigation was begun. The first step lay in calling 
upon all auto repair shops in the area. From the skid marks and 
the ornament, fundamental identification had begun. Then came 
word from a repair man of a car that had been repaired within a 
day since the occurrence. That car had recently lost a radiator 
ornament. 

Officers visited the home of the owner of the repaired car, and 
found the car parked on the street. Leaping Lena’s broken legs 
fitted the stumps atop the remains of the ornament. Pictures were 
taken of the joining. Police made the arrest. At the station, quick 
development of the pictures showed in sequence an officer fitting 
the ornament to the stumps, and the final perfected joining. Further 
photographs of the tires definitely matched the pictures of the skid 
marks. On being confronted with this evidence, the hit and run 
driver confessed to the crime. The pictures, on corroboration by 
the arresting officers served as the evidence in the courtroom which 
convicted the culprit. 

This case is one of many that has proven to police forces all over 
the world that photography is vital to crime prevention and detec- 


176 




“fF reck” Los Angeles Police Department 

Figure 117. Data: Recomar 18 with Abbey Synchronizer, 1/50 second 
at F:5.6 on Super Ortho Press. One G.E. No. 21. 


tion. Thousands of cases can be found on the dockets that are marked 
“Closed” because so conclusive has the photographic evidence been 
that the criminal found himself and his alibis overwhelmed by self- 
explanatory incriminating evidence. 

It is really only five years since photography has become indis¬ 
pensable to the police. True, cameras have been used, for possibly 
twenty years or more, but one point has always limited their utility 
—lighting conditions. With the perfecting of the flashbulb, the last 
obstacle to standard acceptance was eliminated. Bottled daylight, 
in the form of the flashbulb, evened up photographic conditions so 
that documentary records could be made under all circumstances. 

Today the police are among the largest users of flash. The reason 


177 



lies in the fact that most accidents and crimes occur during hours 
when lighting conditions are poor, notably early morning, dusk, 
and darkness. 

Police departments are, today, completely efficient. They are on 
their toes in matters that can aid in crime prevention or detection. 
They are systematic and methodical, and any innovation that can 
alleviate their burden, or shorten investigation time or time spent 
in court provides them with more time to search out and punish 
crime. 

Their sense of composition is not the artistic one. Theirs is prac¬ 
tical. Police pictures have to tell a story, and that is the first thing 
that the rookie is taught. He is taught first how to use a camera. 
He is provided with standard exposures which have been worked 
out to meet certain situations and conditions. True that he does not 
have time to dabble in the fine art of the camera, yet he manages 
to consistently bring in pictures that clearly place a crime, clues, 
identities, locations and possibilities. If you don’t believe it, visit 
a few courtrooms and watch the part that police photography plays. 

Lieutenant Kreml of the Evanston, Illinois, police force is an 
outstanding sponsor of new police methods in America. Young, alert, 
well-educated, his progressive attitude has affected crime prevention 
greatly. He was one of the first proponents of photo-documentation 
and has stressed the value of flash and the camera in his books and 
lectures. J. Edgar Hoover of the F. B. I., committed to furthering 
police activity and methods, was quick to accept the benefits of 
photography, which now plays an important part in his department. 
Men like Officer George T. George of the Los Angeles Police Depart¬ 
ment are to be thanked for constancy in promoting the use of the 
camera in police work and in developing specific methods of appli¬ 
cation. For twelve years he has been pleading the case of the 
camera versus crime. For eleven of those years he has been ex¬ 
perimenting with flash photography. In the last five years he has 
had the pleasure of seeing his department, the Los Angeles police, 
climb to top-billing in departmental photography. There is no phase 
of photography he has not tried. He hooked up the first synchro¬ 
nized movie camera to a squad car to take a record of speeding 
cars, coupled with the rate of speed registered by the speedometer 


178 


of the police car. Reporters from all over the country lauded that 
development on noting its efficiency. 

When flash became a reliable medium, Officer George went out 
on calls, carrying his camera, and proved to the powers that pictures 
carry weight in courtrooms. Today the Los Angeles Police have fifty 
up-to-the-minute photographic kits travelling with squad cars all 
the time. Each kit contains either a Recomar 18 or a Speed Graphic 
complete with synchronizer and range-finder, a quantity of flash¬ 
bulbs, six cut holders, lens hood, and all other necessary accessories 
and materials. It is compulsory that pictures be taken of every 
incident that results in death or injury. Several pictures are taken 
of each case from varied angles to lucidly explain all circumstances. 
In cases of traffic accidents, tire marks and skid marks are outlined 
in chalk for best reproduction. More than 60% of all police pictures 
are taken with flash. As distortion or lack of depth of field can 
reverse a verdict, the intense light of flash has proven a boon as it 
permits wide and deep coverage. Daylight flash is rapidly gaining 
ground in crime photography as of times shadows can be illusory, 
or can pervert or distort an image. One specific case is best described 
by narration. 

Early one morning a passenger alighting from the platform of 
a streetcar was struck by a passing automobile and was instantly 
killed. Passengers on the streetcar insisted that the hit-and-run ve¬ 
hicle had been a black panel-truck without writing or identification. 
A witness who had been standing on the sidewalk insisted that the 
truck had indeed been black, but that, contrary to the testimony of 
other witnesses, there had been writing on the truck in white paint. 
A fleeting, cursory glimpse had revealed to him the words, “Nuts to 
You.” He was ill at ease in mentioning this phrase, aware that it 
sounded fantastic, and might he taken as an affront by the law. 
Nevertheless, further questioning revealed that he would swear to 
it. He admitted that the truck was in the shadow of a bridge at the 
time he saw it, and he might have been wrong in the wording, but 
this was at least a clue which the police were quick to accept. Further¬ 
more, he stated that a plank projected diagonally from the rear of 
the truck. Other witnesses who had been passengers on the street¬ 
car corroborated this last statement. 


179 


Immediately all trucks in the area were tracked down by the Los 
Angeles Police. A truck was found loading in the produce market 
that matched the description of the witnesses. Certainly enough, one 
side of the truck was completely black; the other side bore the 
facetious phrase. From the rear of the truck projected a plank. 
Photographs taken of the truck distinctly showing the phrase and 
the projecting plank were admitted as evidence. All witnesses iden¬ 
tified the pictures and testified that the truck had been responsible 
for the death. The driver admitted the crime and lost his job driving 
a truck for a nut company whose slogan was “Nuts to You.” Natur¬ 
ally he was convicted. 

This, however, illustrates only a small part of the necessity of 
the camera, and particularly flash, in police photography. The Lind¬ 
bergh kidnapping case was solved and closed because of photographs. 
Photographs of clues, the hiding place of the money, the fateful 
stepladder and pieces of wood that had gone into its building, of 
Hauptman himself compared to drawings compiled from impres¬ 
sions of witnesses, of fingerprints left on the window-sill as compared 
to those of Hauptman. Every picture that was admitted as evidence 
drove another wedge into alibis and pleas of not guilty, and Haupt¬ 
man was convicted. 

Thread from clothing, footprints in soft earth, bits of hair, or 
scraping from fingernails—all these are photographed to prove 
undeniably the guilt of criminals, and these photographs, on cor¬ 
roboration of witnesses, criminologists, scientists or other expert 
witnesses, hang many a criminal. 

The closing of indecent shows has been accomplished in most 
cases solely through photographs of lewd and immoral acts. The 
strategems used to acquire the needed evidence are at times hilari¬ 
ously funny. Although the theatre manager is usually cagey when 
his show is of a sexy nature, he can sometime be taken in with a 
stunt that has worked so many times that it has become a standard 
joke among police photographers. Here is one case that actually 
happened in a west coast city, and which was described in newspaper 
accounts all over the country. 

Several police photographers took a box quite near the stage at 
a recent show. They let word slip back to the manager, through an 


180 



“The Last Mistake” Los Angeles Police Department 

Figure 118. Data: Recomar 18 with Abbey synchronizer, 1/50 second 
at F :16 on Super Ortho Press. One Wabash No. 2. 




usher, that they were talent scouts from the New York stage. Back- 
stage was a beehive of activity as this information filtered through. 
The actors put all the “oomph” of which they were capable into 
their actions. The “talent scouts” took countless flash pictures of 
all the highly flavored episodes on the stage. Although normally 
there would have been objections from the management to flash 
photography during a performance, there was none because both 
cast and management were excited with the possibility of “going 
places.” 

After the show, the photographers returned to the police labora¬ 
tories, made prints, and by the time the arresting officers returned 
with their prisoners, a complete documentary record had been made 
which, when presented in court brought about the conviction of 


181 




principals and management of the show. 

This case was easy because it had been properly planned, but 
often, of course, the knowledge that there are police, reformers or 
crusaders in the audience results in a temporary “tone-down” until 
they are gone. Most frequently, though, before the information has 
had time to filter back, several incriminating shots have already been 
taken. Police are now experimenting with infra-red blackout pho¬ 
tography to facilitate this type of work. 

Police photographers whose specific job it is to work with a 
camera all day long, are generally familiar enough with their equip¬ 
ment to know its operation under all circumstances. The officers in 
traffic squads, however, whose duties are multiple, find their job 
facilitated by a night exposure table which is pasted to the camera. 
As the officer has little time for meditation or planning on night 
accidents which occur on the streets, his teachings in photography 
lie in the fundamentals of placing the scene on the emulsion so that 
nothing is left to the imagination when the picture is presented as 
evidence or documentation. More time is spent in planning the com¬ 
position of the picture than in technicalities. Thus, standard police 
exposures, which grant much greater latitude than is usually neces¬ 
sary, are compiled, applying to conditions of total darkness. Where 
the average photographer is told by manufacturers of flashbulbs to 
open his aperture two stops when shooting under conditions of great 
absorption, the police photographer usually shoots three or four 
stops better. Sometimes his negative is slightly overexposed in the 
foreground, but greater detail is found in the background, and 
errors are sometimes corrected in development. Of the many thou¬ 
sands of negatives examined by the writer in police files, the majority 
were found to be excellent in coverage for police purposes, each 
lucidly explaining circumstances and the story of the mishap. Those 
files are not available to the press, attorneys or civilians, and serve 
only in police work. 

Note that the exposure guide illustrated here, which is a stand¬ 
ard police guide, applies to tungsten film speed 40, shutter speed 
1/50 second, synchronized. In some instances it is four or more 
stops wider than manufacturer’s specifications, but police work has 
proven them practical. In their use, the officer measures the dis- 


182 




tance with a steel tape to assure perfect focus, and also because his 
records require exact distances. 

Exposure 

Super Ortho Press 


Feet 

F: Stop 

25 

4.5 

22 

5 

20 

5.6 

18 

6.3 

16 

7 

14 

8 

12' 8" 

9 

11 

10 

10 

11 

9 

12.7 

8 

14 

7 

16 

6' 4" 

18 

5' 7" 

20 

5 

22 

4' 6" 

25 

4 

29 

3' 6" 

32 


Above figures are obtained from calculator when set at Film 
Speed 40. Synchronized. Use shutter speed of 1/50 sec. 

Criminals too sometimes make use of photography in their de¬ 
fense, sometimes resorting to darkroom-art to distort the facts. Laws 
have been promulgated, however, to make faking of pictures entered 
as evidence in court a major crime in itself. Verdicts of perjury have 
often been brought in to disqualify faked pictures, although in most 
cases honest pictures accompanied by the original negative have 
reversed decisions. It is unfortunate that one case where justice 
might have blinked her eyes, the Tom Mooney case, was not greatly 
affected by photographic evidence, although a picture was the prin¬ 
cipal defense. That, however, was 1916, and it was long after that 
that photography climbed to the prominent position it now occupies 
in the courtroom. 


183 



Insurance companies have staff photographers who help prove or 
disprove claims, and the results of their efforts are also accepted as 
evidence. Police departments, although sometimes urged by insur¬ 
ance companies to release pictures from their files, never do. 

The Rogues Gallery, of course, has depended for generations on 
pictures for identification. Flash has made the task of the Gallery 
photographers easier and more certain. Often, in police line-ups, 
you will find flash used. 

There are several burglar-alarm devices on the market which 
utilize flash. One of these devices, by means of an electric eye, trips 
the shutter of a camera, recording the image of the burglar, setting 
off an alarm at the same time. This is one specific case where pictures 
do not lie. 

In every “who-done-it” movie you see, the coroner enters the 
scene accompanied by a photographer, who takes pictures of the 
spot marked “X.” The coroner’s photographer has a technique that 
differs again from customary photography. His picture must reveal 
every tell-tale clue, while at the same time explaining the scene. His 
job is gruesome, but it does not affect his appetite because when 
viewed objectively, his subject is little different from other still life, 
except that it offers more complications. 

One unpleasant phase of police photography is explained lucidly 
in the general use of ortho film instead of pan. Ortho film will 
register all blemishes, marks, and bloodstains. Now that a new ortho 
film with a faster rating has made its appearance, police photography 
should show even greater improvement than it has in the last few 
years. 

The police photographer does not depict glamour. His pictures 
never receive the limelight that is bestowed upon commercial men 
and advanced amateurs. He is prohibited by law from hanging his 
work in salons or from selling or displaying or permitting his pictures 
to be sold or displayed. His daily work goes into a secret file, and 
his pictures are seen only by his superiors in his department and 
principals in criminal cases. His only photographic gratification lies 
in the successful closing of a case. 


184 


The Movie Still Photographer 


There are only 104 movie still men registered in Hollywood. 
Only those 104 can work in the studios. Most of them are on regular 
payroll or contract. These men take an almost unbelievable number 
of pictures each week. One major studio alone records a weekly 
average of approximately ten thousand stills. Possibly you are think¬ 
ing—“What has this to do with flash?” Flash photography is new. 
It is daily becoming more nearly indispensable to the selling of 
movies. Publicity stills are usually taken with flash. New methods 
of application and usage are constantly being sought. As an example, 
the manufacturers of flashbulbs have stationed technical men in 
Hollywood to assist still men in developing new techniques, and in 
mastering old ones. Many new techniques do emanate from Holly¬ 
wood. 

It is rapidly being found that heavy spots and floods in the 
portrait studio can be advantageously replaced with flash. The same 
techniques of key and filler as well as backlight can be applied, with 
greater convenience and ease to the subject. Today photographers 
are succeeding in applying the light of flashbulbs to every circum¬ 
stance of good portraiture that formerly required other means of 
lighting. Flash is easier on the subject. It permits natural expres¬ 
sions. It saves the bother of renewing melting make-up. Most 
important, it is portable and can be applied to circumstances where 
other light is not flexible or attainable. 

Movie still photography is in a class all its own. A good still 
picture used in movie publicity must contain action, appeal and 
spontaneity. It must encompass new gags, new camera angles, new 


185 




Figure 119. 


Anne Miller—Columbia Pictures 
Photo by Whitey Schafer. 

Two medium flashbulbs, one at 
right, aimed at background and 
subject, one very high at left. 


expressions, and must tell a story. It must strike the fancy of the 
newspaper and magazine reader, and must invite them to their 
theatres. 

It is understandable that pictures with all these features must 
be tracked down at their source rather than set up in the studio. 
Having variable light conditions to contend with portable light must 
be carried. 

There are three phases of still photography on the movie lot. 
The first is studio portraiture. This is strictly glamour stuff which is 
carefully planned and which is done by appointment. (Figure 119.) 
The second is assignment to production. Certain men work on the 
movie stage reporting with the actors, cinematographers, and direc¬ 
tors and carefully watching for picture possibilities; movie camera 
reloads and technical delays afford the still photographer his only 
opportunities to take representative pictures for publicity. (Figure 
120.) The third is straight publicity. In this last phase the still man 
must constantly think of new ideas, must take pictures around the 
lot whenever circumstances permit, must go to previews and parties. 


186 





Marlene Dietrich—Warner Brothers Photo by Mack Elliott 

Figure 120. One small bulb on camera. 



Anne Gwynne—Universal Pictures Photo by Romati Freulich 

Figure 121. Synchro-sunlight, one flashbulb at camera. 


0 & 




must photograph actors and actresses in their homes (Figure 121), 
and must get “gag” pictures which create extra reasons for publica¬ 
tion in the press. 

In some cases the department head shuffles assignments, alternat¬ 
ing his staff on various jobs. On some, priority, ability, or reputation, 
determines the assignment and it remains permanent. 

Recently A. L. (Whitey) Schafer, head of the Columbia Pictures 
staff, set up multiple flash units in his portrait studio to supplement 
other lighting, and is now doing a great deal of portraiture with flash. 
Before adopting the camera, Whitey was a commercial artist and his 
modus operandi is affected by his previous training. He figures out 
his picture diagrammatically on a sketch pad before photographing 
it, calculating his lighting angles, exposures, poses, and props at the 
same time. When a star appears for a series of pictures, Whitey’s 
assistants place the flash extensions according to plan, and without 
delay or hardship to the subject the work is completed. 

Among the tips passed on by several important photographers 
are these: for the sake of modelling, use two bulbs. If only one bulb 
must be used have a long cord put on your gun. Mount your camera 
on a tripod, carry your gun to one side or another of the camera, so 
that your light will come from the side, and not from the front. If it 
is possible to use two or more bulbs, glamour effects can be had that 
are flattering. One bulb should be a main light and should be placed 
about four feet higher than the level of the lens. The second bulb 
should be used to balance the lighting as a fill-in. An additional bulb 
as a back light adds distinction, high-lighting the hair and costume, 
and bringing out a critical outline, as well as softening shadows. If, 
in glamour-flash, soft tones are desired, several means can be used 
to diffuse the light. One is the use of white silk, or thin white tissue 
paper snapped taut in hoops and placed over the reflectors. 

Ray Jones, who heads the Universal Pictures still department, 
has this suggestion on flash in child portraiture: “Baby Sandy, one 
of Universal’s prize subjects, is always photographed with flash as 
it is the only logical light-source for baby photography. It works no 
hardship on children, lends itself to varying facial expressions, and 
is so informal that it does not put children on edge.” 

Jones recommends the careful study of movie stills by those who 


188 



Jane Frazee—Universal Pictures 

Photo by Ed Estabrook 

Figure 122. One small bulb to left 
and higher than camera. 





Baby Sandy—Universal Pictures 
Photo by Ed Estabrook 


Figure 123. Synchro-sunlight, 
one small bulb at camera for 
fill-in. 






would like to do comparable work. Jones heads a staff of forty-four 
men, is the guiding genius at Universal, has been a still photographer 
for almost twenty years, and, like Rembrandt and Leonardo DaVinei, 
received his original experience in photographing skin quality by 
using cadavers as his subjects. Jones became a photographer at the 
age of 14, taking pictures of corpses in caskets. It taught him a good 
deal and started him on a prominent photographic career. 

Ed Estahrook’s picture of Jane Frazee, Universal star, is an 
excellent example of single flash, and is a good “gag” shot. Ed, asked 
to get a picture with an Easter motif for the press (Figure 122), 
arranged very simple props that set the subject off to advantage. 
The bunny carried out the Easter theme and the picture is a good 
example of leg-art. Interest in Miss Frazee’s new motion picture 
was created by this still and most newspapers and magazines were 
glad to feature it, as it fits nicely into the “Diversion” class. Photo¬ 
graphically it is well planned, and though only one light source is 
used, skin tones and highlights are nicely shown. By moving the 
subject about six feet from the wall, the shadow could have been 
eliminated. By using a backlight, the wall could have been lightened. 
The flashbulb was held high and to the left side of the camera, giving 
the picture the modelled effect. 

Estabrook’s pictures of Baby Sandy are excellent examples of 
the one flashbulb method. (Figures 123-125.) In each of these 
pictures the light was held high and to the left. 

Emmett Schoenbaum’s picture of Alice Faye (Figure 126) points 
out the benefit of two bulbs. Had only one bulb been used at the 
camera, the shadow of the flowers would have kicked back at the 
subject, or else placement of the bulb at the left would have shadowed 
the right side of Miss Faye’s face. With one small bulb at the left, 
and a large bulb at the right of the camera, perfect modelling 
resulted, with highlights on the hair. A third bulb as a back light 
would have improved the picture, but time was limited and quarters 
were cramped. A similar effect was had in Whitey Schafer’s action 
picture of Ann Miller (Figure 119), in which diffused bulbs of equal 
intensity were used, one high to the left, and one at the right of the 
camera aimed at the background, with part of the light striking the 


190 



Baby Sandy—Universal Pictures 
Photo by Ed Estabrook 

Figure 124. One small bulb. 




HIGH 


Baby Sandy—Universal 
Pictures 

Photo by Ed Estabrook 

Figure 125. One small bulb, 
high. 

















“Alice Faye — 20th Century-Fox 
Photo by Emmett Schoenbaum 

Figure 126. One large bulb, one small, as indicated. 




LARGE 

BULB 

HIGH 


HIGH 


QC2 


Figure 127. Mike McGreal and Bill Ohrm of Warner Brothers 
discuss Scotty Welbourne’s prize winning color shot. 
Photo by Marty Crail. 

Two flash bulbs as indicated. 




















subject. The bulb on the left was placed about four feet higher than 
and almost directly above Miss Miller. 

When taking pictures of this nature, several thoughts should he 
kept in mind. First, think before taking a picture. If possible, plan 
it and follow your plan instead of just snapshooting. Try to visualize 
the finished result when placing your lights. Acquaint yourself with 
your equipment. Learn diplomacy in dealing with people. Try to 
learn from the methods used by successful photographers and until 
you have found yourself, experiment with various methods, keeping 
a record of your experiments so that you can refer back and benefit 
by your trials. 

At Warner Brothers, E. B. (Mike) McGreal (Figure 127), who 
heads a large staff of top men, among them Elmer Fryer, Scotty 
Welbourne, Muky Munkacsi and many others, was one of the first 
men to experiment with flash, and later, the first to use flash for all 
color photography. For the past two years the Warner Brothers 
laboratories, the largest in the world, have sent out a constant stream 
of color prints to the press for use in roto sections. Mike McGreal 
suggests that the photographer who wants to go places should experi¬ 
ment with various phases of photography until he knows what he 
likes best and excels in, then specialize in one phase. Specialization, 
says McGreal, brings success closer. 

Charles Goldie, head of the Twentieth Century Fox photographic 
department recommends that the amateur take advantage of public 
schools that feature photo courses in which several men at Fox got 
their fundamental training. 

It will be noted that the technical data is much less specific in 
this chapter. The studios, for reasons that may be appreciated, 
refuse to release any information that might be construed as a 
“plug” for any specific commercial product. 


193 




Bob Hope and Paulette Goddard 
—Paramount Pictures 

Photo by Malcolm Bullock 
Figure 128. One flash bulb. 



Ann Sheridan—Warner Bros. 

Photo by Elmer Fryer 

Figure 129. Synchro-sunlight, 
one bulb at camera. 





Radio Publicity Photography 


Ted Allan, photographer for the Hollywood studios of the 
Columbia Broadcasting System, takes pictures of all the prominent 
radio stars. His pictures are released to radio magazines and news¬ 
papers, and are constantly in the public eye. 

There is little fundamental difference in the nature of his job 
and that of a movie still man. Allan’s work differs only in that he 
invites the listener to tune in certain programs on his radio, instead 
of inviting them to a theatre seat. In that endeavor the theme must 
always stress the radio broadcasts, or certain characters portrayed 
on the air. 

In all pictures taken at the microphone, flash is the only per¬ 
missible light medium. Some years ago, a visitor from the press, in 
trying to use floods, plugged them into the power line and blew a 
main fuse, thus throwing the radio system off the air for ten minutes. 
That incident resulted in a ruling that permitted only flash to be 
used in the studios. 

Ted Allan uses at least two flashbulbs, one on an extension for 
a high hack-light, giving a third dimensional effect. In radio, unlike 
movies, the reader likes to see groups of characters instead of one 
main subject, and this necessitates the use of as many as three or 
four bulbs on group shots. Even in the case of individuals photo¬ 
graphed, two bulbs are used if possible. 




“Senator Fishface’s Platform ” 

Ted Allan 

Figure 130. Data: 4x5 Speed 
Graphic with Jacobson synchroniz¬ 
er, 1/200 second at F: 16 on Tri X 
Pan. Two Wabash No. 2. 

Senator Fish face runs for election 
on a platform that would place an 
Earl Carroll girl as a hostess in 
every streetcar. 


Imagination is vital in radio publicity to arouse interest. As a 
result, every picture of a comedian must of necessity be a “gag” 
shot, and new gags must constantly be thought up. The reader wants 
to see Gracie Allen or Eddie Cantor performing some act, rather than 
looking glamorous. Senator Fishface is a problem for Allan because 
his campaigns are legion. In the illustration of the Senator’s platform 
(Figure 130), Allan expressed an idea that drew thousands of new 
listeners to their radios. 

The first print Allan ever made was 8 feet by 10 feet. He bluffed 
his way into a photographic agency that made master murals, and 
succeeded in his bluff. Later he opened a photographic concession 
in a department store and continually lost money by giving the public 
costly pictures for practically nothing. Then a major movie studio 
asked him to join their ranks and he graduated from the movies to 
radio, and at the age of 31, is tops in the radio field. 

Secret of his success in radio photography: try to get a candid 
effect, even if the picture is posed. Flash is essential to this effect. 


196 







VZZ7ZSZ 


BELOW FLOOR LEVEL "AlMtO UPWARD 

^7 C7 



“Oner Munson” 

Ted Allan 

Figure 131. Data: 8x10 Eastman 
View with Jacobson synchronizer, 
open-and-shut at F:32 on TriX Pan. 

Three Wabash No. 0, One Wabash 
No. 2. 







“Charles Correll” (Andy of Amos and Andy) 


Ted Allan 


Figure 133. Data: 4x5 Speed Graphic with Jacobson synchronizer, 
1/200 second at F:32 on Tri X Pan. One Wabash Press-40 diffused 
with handkerchief and placed under dashboard of plane. (Picture 
would be improved by another bulb placed at camera.) 







"Jean Hersholt” Ted Allan 

Figure 132. 4x5 Speed Graphic with Jacobson synchronizer, 
1/200 second at F:16 on Tri X Pan. One large bulb outside 
window, one medium bulb on camera. 




198 










Aviation Flash Photography 


Larry Kronquist of Douglas Aircraft, whose excellent illustra¬ 
tions are accompanied by his own explanation of each picture, has 
developed a “shadow eye” to determine what stop to use. If he is 
underneath the plane, and little daylight passes the heavy structure, 
he works practically under night conditions, depending upon the 
flash as the principal light source. If, however, sunlight is the prin¬ 
cipal source, and flash is used to brighten shadows, exposure is 
generally made for sunlight, with the light from the bulbs taking 
care of the shadows. 

Kronquist takes color pictures and black-and-whites of every 
assignment. Although defense at present takes almost all Douglas 
production, publicity is continued for times of peace, and the 
expected increase in civilian aviation. At the same time, with mili¬ 
tary production, as in the case of the world’s largest plane, the B-19, 
publicity is continued to keep the public informed, and to help 
morale. These pictures are taken under a handicap as certain parts 
of the cockpit and structural design cannot be shown for military 
reasons. Pictures cannot be taken of control panels, although they 
are sometimes very colorful. 

A synchronized view camera and a 4x5 Speed Graphic with 
Abbey synchronizer are used, and several flashbulbs are used on 
almost all pictures. In the picture showing mass production inside 
the plant, a series of bulbs were placed in strategic spots behind 
pillars all along the line to light the entire assembly. Exposure was 


199 





'■ . 

* 








200 
























figured for the front bulb at the camera, and as other bulbs were 
placed to cover individual areas beyond the range of the first bulb, 
the picture was well balanced. 

Kronquist has an eye for composition that was developed through 
the study of art. He has been a photographer for only two years, and 
has gained fame and fortune at snch a rapid rate that he is still 
startled by it. He studies photographic trends avoraciously, and 
plans his pictures as he would plan paintings. 

For all of his color work he uses daylight film and daylight blue 
bulbs. Often, to liven skin tones, he breaks precedent with daylight 
color film by using blue bulbs to bring out the coldness of the metal, 
but the lower color-temperature standard flashbulbs to liven the face 
of a human subject. Thus the metal looks cold and blue, and the 
face has natural skin tones. 

On one assignment he tried to photograph camouflaged airplanes 
from the sky, but found that they blended too well with the earth 
to be seen. All that was visible to the eye was the shadow on the 
ground. Color pictures of those camouflaged planes, with flash, made 
them visible, but the transparencies were destroyed later as being 
strategically too informative. 

As an avocation, after taking industrial aviation pictures that 
appear in print all over the world, Larry Kronquist photographs his 
little daughter, always using flash on his pictures. He refuses to use 
any other light source, and proves their worth by the quality of 
pictures he makes. 


“Biggest Tail in the World ”— 4x5 Speed Graphic—special ground tripod, Schneider wide 
angle lens—light yellow filter—one #21 bulb was used to give more detail under tail 
surfaces. A nicely composed shot—being reproduced in color and black and white in 
numerous magazines and newspapers. The shot was made at 1/25 second—stop ? — 

Figure 134. Photo by Lawrence Kronquist, Special Photographer for Douglas Aircraft Co. 


( 


201 






Figure 135. W orking on the nose 
of a Douglas u Havoc’’ night fight¬ 
er (for Britain). Only one 40,000 
flash bulb in an extension, no fill- 
in light, so as to cut down distract¬ 
ing elements — very careful as to 
the placing of the reflector so 
shadows of the nose frame work 
would not spoil the picture. Ab¬ 
bey flashgun — 4x5 Speed Graphic 
—5 1 /4 lens—-Agfa Triple S film — 
1/100 second—Tripod used. 

Photo by Lawrence Kronquist, 
Special photographer for Douglas 
Aircraft Co. 


<3 

<3 

<3 

<3 

i a 

Figure 136. ^ Q<3 

Synchro-Sunlight flash shot, or 
rather a slow shot, 1/25 second 
with flash bulbs to bring out the 
mass production line. A press 25 
bulb used on the camera—one 
large reflector with a 40,000 bulb 
about 12 feet to the left of the 
camera and a string of bulbs 
(some #21’s) placed along the 
right hand side, all out of sight 
except the edge of first reflector. 
All bulbs were connected to an 
Abbey flash outfit using dry cell 
batteries and a transformer to 
cut the juice down for the trip¬ 
per. 



202 

















Figure 137. 


Synchro-sunlight flash shot of the 
nose of the 82 ton Douglas B-19 
Bomber. 1/100 second—light yellow 
filter—stop ? —3}4" wide angle lens 
— 40,000 press bulb for fill-in — 4x5 
Speed Graphic—Abbey Super Press 
Flashgun. Camera on special 8-inch 
tripod. Agfa Triple S film. 

Photo by Lawrence Kronquist, Spe¬ 
cial photographer for Douglas Air¬ 
craft Co. 




Figure 138. 

“Gargantua,” a spectacular syn¬ 
chro-sunlight flash shot of one 
of the four 2,000 H.P. engines 
on the giant Douglas B-19 Bomb¬ 
er. 4x5 Speed Graphic, 3}4" 
wide angle lens, camera on spe¬ 
cial 8 inch tripod so as to get 
the low angle so necessary to 
show the power and vastness of 
the world’s largest plane. Abbey 
flashgun, spot reflector on cam¬ 
era, one 40,000 press bulb used 
as a fill-in light and to show 
more detail under the wing. 
1/200 second — Agfa Triple S 
film—stop ?—light yellow filter. 

Photo by Lawrence Kronquist, 
Special photographer for Doug¬ 
las Aircraft Co. 


203 












Clinical Flash Photography 


The medical profession depends on flash photography to docu¬ 
ment ailments, to illustrate conditions to patients, to help in diag¬ 
nosis, to explain circumstances to students, and to record treatment 
before and after surgery. Flash is the fundamental light for clinical 
photography because it permits small apertures and critical definition 
of tissue. 

The Leica and Contax have long been used for color and black- 
and-white medical recording, but the development of several spe¬ 
cially designed cameras has widened the scope of clinical photog¬ 
raphy. One, the Cameron Color Flash Clinical Camera (Figure 139), 
has allied flash photography with medicine on a scale never before 
attained. This camera houses a flashbulb, which shoots a defined 
beam of light at the subject. It is a streamlined portable camera 
equipped with a conical adaptor for special use, and three standard 
dry cells are positioned inside the housing for lighting a focussing 
lamp within the camera, and also to fire the flashbulb. A sigmoido- 
scopic tube can be attached to the lens for insertion into an incision 
or almost any part of the anatomy. With its sharp flash definition, 
it permits endoscopic, orificial, superficial, portrait or general scien¬ 
tific pictures that render, in either black-and-white or color, clear 
and specific documentation of causes, conditions and procedures. 


204 




“Dental Photography” Hugh F. Smith 

Courtesy Cameron Surgical Specialty Co. 

Figure 139. This camera is designed for medical or dental use. A 
flashbulb is housed inside the camera and is synchronized with the 
shutter. When the shutter is tripped, the bulb fires, shooting a con¬ 
centrated beam of light into the mouth of the patient, permitting 
a stopped down, critical record. For medical use, a tube, attached 
to the lens, permits injection into incisions or parts of the human 

system. 


Ill use with the sigmoidoscopic tube, the flashbulb is fired, and a 
series of mirrors and prisms direct the light into the sigmoidoscope, 
at the same time tripping the shutter, and carrying the light through 
the tube which in turn relays the image back to the film. If the 
picture is taken in color, the transparency can later be projected on 
a screen, and examination of tissue discoloration indicates whether 
operation or further treatment is required. The flashbulb used is 
the small #0 size, and exposures for this particular equipment have 
been determined by the manufacturers on the basis of experiments. 


205 






And in Conclusion — 


We have tried, in this book on Flash Photography, to lay a 
groundwork for the amateur, a design for improvement for the 
advanced photographer, and a clearing house of ideas for the expert. 
In that endeavor we hope that we have been successful. 

We make one parting suggestion, and that is that you refer to 
these pages often. Occasional reference to diagrammatic material 
will assist you in planning your effects. Comparison with the work 
of established experts will suggest improvements. It is not the equip¬ 
ment that determines the picture so much as the diligence and 
intelligence of the photographer. 

The future undoubtedly will bring forth many radical improve¬ 
ments in flash equipment, but the procedures outlined in this book 
are basic and fundamental, and with them you can make pictures 
that you will be proud to acknowledge in years to come. 


William Mortensen 
Don M. Paul 


206 


Appendix 


Appendix A 

Method of Determining Pilot Numbers 

Ill the chapter on portraiture we give a list of “pilot exposures” 
based on the use of T-20 500 watt lamps in Solite reflectors. These 
units were chosen as being readily available standard equipment. 
For those who wish to calculate pilot numbers for their own type 
of equipment, or to verify the list given in Table XIV, we herewith 
outline the method followed in determining these “pilot exposures.” 

Practically any type of lighting units will serve for this purpose. 
However, all units used together must be identical. 

Let us say that you want to determine the pilot exposure number 
for Wabash Press-25 at 1/200 second. From Table IX take the 
“flash number” for Wabash Press-25 in regular reflector with A 
film. This is found to be 100. From the flash number, determine 
the proper F: setting for a lamp distance of 10 feet. The proper 
setting is obviously F:10. 

Now place your T-20 500 watt unit (or whatever other standard 
you may select) exactly 10 feet from a subject of medium com¬ 
plexion. Turn on the light and, with your Weston meter set for a 
film speed of 64, take a reading of the light area of the subject’s 
face. Turn the arrow on your calculator dial to this number. Op¬ 
posite F:10 (which we have already determined as the correct set¬ 
ting for a Press-25 at 10 feet) you will find the pilot exposure 
number. For example, a T-20 500 watt lamp in a Solite reflector 
(the unit I have taken as a standard for Table XIV) at 10 feet 
will give a reading of 2.5. Setting this up on the calculator dial, 
already set for a film speed of 64, we find *4 second opposite F:10. 
Therefore, Yl second is (in terms of the chosen standard) the pilot 
exposure number for the Press-25 in a regular reflector at 1/200 
second. 

This pilot exposure number holds true for any combination or 
grouping of identical units. 


208 






































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